imdadrobbani-dot-com

What is Going Wrong with Us?

2011-09-19T09:14:00.000+07:00

Actually question raised here is referring to specific matter. If put more frankly and directly, it will sound like: Why (some) santriwati {woman student in Islamic boarding school, pesantren} do remove their jilbabs after no longer living in pesantren? Obviously there is no simple answer, if any, to this complex and multi-layered situation.

The reader, if any, need to keep in his mind that this, written in warnet, might be a bit too subjective and kinda personal in some sense. Opinions are very hopefully waited to make me little bit know the actual map of this problem. I just list question I want to ask.

Underlying idea behind this question is if difference is expected between those educated in pesantren 24 hours and those who are not, then why the result of both educational systems are not really different in terms of norms that are strictly emphasized in all pesantren without a single exception. Jilbab is but a simple, yet visible, example of those norms. I mean by "visible" literally, for if we bring the discussion to another "invisible" matters, it will be, at least, not as easy as the topic already chosen. And again, it is a culmination point from which point of view the distinction between santri and non-santri is usually made.

When a santri lives in pesantren, she is required to observe norms which, seen from non-santri people in Indonesian context, might seem to be oppressive. To assure her doing her obligation, certain rules are applied, which, when violated, can mean punishment. Then we can the result of this, no santri can be seen unveiled publicly within pesantren environment.

The next question to answer is does it last when she is no longer living in pesantren, on holiday or after graduation? We see at campuses and boarding houses santri who no longer wear jilbab as usually they do in pesantren. Although, I guess, those who keeps wearing their jilbab are more in number compared to those who do not, the second group seem to be increasing, thanks to technology information advancement.

Facebook is undoubtedly in forefront in this process of socializing private stuffs, if this term is accepted.

For now, it's enough. I have to go ... hopefully soon finished :) another unfinished writing... :D

Debating Facebook: Facebook Viewed Traditionally

2009-05-28T14:36:00.000+07:00

Facebook now has become new keyword in our Internet social networking. Recently some woman students from several traditional Islamic boarding schools (pondok pesantren) gathered to talk about Facebook—more precisely about its permissibility according to Islamic law, that is, past scholar opinions written in books known as kitab kuning (literally means yellow book, referring to paper usually used in printing those books). This gathering, which in Muslims’ traditional circle is known as bahth al-masa’il (literally investigating problems), has been a long handed-down tradition for generations to answer questions and solve problems asked to authority in traditional society in Indonesia.
Generally, there are some kinds of this meeting called bahth al-masa’il, such as its official form held by Nahdlatul Ulama. But, when done by students of pesantren, it is usually aimed primarily at improving their debate and problem-solving capabilities in order for them, when going home, to have such competences, rather than to officially state legal opinion (fatwa). It is a habit in it to have problems usually gathered from several pesantrens joining it. Questions raised in it reflect contemporary—usually popular—problems, which may be understood as everything which legal status is unknown before.
It is, then, not surprising at all that Facebook, seen as massive social phenomenon, draws attention to be discussed. As predicted, the conclusion of this assembly is that if Facebook is used in accordance with, or not violating, religious norms, then it should be legally allowed or even recommended in some cases, and if it is misused, e.g. used for pornography, it is forbidden.

Then, what is prohibited is not Facebook as is, rather its abuse. It is a fatwa based on maslahah (commonly rendered as public interest). Nothing is special in such legal opinion, moreover if we notice that many, if not most, problems, which has no clear prescription from Quran verses and Prophetic Traditions, has more often than not been dealt in terms of whether or not it has maslahah. Everybody who is familiar with that institution will admit this.
What is unusual, for me and perhaps for some other people acquainted with pesantren, is media attention. Mass medias seem to have blown up this topic over its proportion by exploitation—sounding a bit offensive ☺. This results in misunderstanding for, at least, two sides. First are those who strictly adhere to traditional authority, although it might be minority in comparison to other side. Second are people who see that pesantren has no longer ability to appropriately respond to contemporary issues.
Here I would like to provide you some links that may clarify this problem.
To make clear this read: http://www.facebook.com/inbox/readmessage.php?t=1072848385924&mbox_pos=0

Here you find the complete result of bahth al-masa’il held by FMP3 which legal opinion concerning Facebook is only one topic, among many, discussed.
http://www.4shared.com/file/107226033/a67e2513/Hasil_Bahtsul_Masail_FMP3_Jatim_Mei_2009.html

Al-Ghazali on Love: Reading Kitab Al-Mahabbah of Ihya’ Ulum Al-Din

2009-04-17T19:49:00.001+07:00

It is needless to say that al-Ghazali is among the greatest Muslim scholars, if not the greatest. He, for Muslims, is the hujjah al-Islam (the proof of Islam) and for Westerners is comparable to figures such as Augustine, Maimonides, Pascal and Kierkegaard. This acknowledgment from opposite civilizations, so to say, illustrates to us how big his influence is in both worlds. It is interesting to note that even Montgomery Watt, one of eminent Orientalist, takes al-Ghazali as sample to show functionality of the intellectuals within society, i.e, their contribution to society. He names al-Ghazali as “... one of the greatest intellectuals of Islamic society”. Another orientalist, Samuel Zwemer, writes a book which subtitle reveals deep respect to al-Ghazali, A Moslem Seeker After God: Showing Islam at its Best in the Life and Teaching of Al-Ghazali, Mystic and Theologian of the Eleventh Century.
This writing merely aims at briefly describing al-Ghazali’s life, while underlining some important facts which have impact on his sufism; al-Ghazali’s works which have been skillfully listed by Abd al-Rahman Badawi in his book; discussing generally al-Ghazali’s magnum opus, Ihya’ Ulum al-Din; studying his concept of love as elaborated in his Kitab al-Mahabbah, being part of Ihya’ Ulum al-Din comparing with the concept of love according to other Sufis; and finally drawing conclusion from that, insha Allah.

LIFE OF THE PROOF OF ISLAM
His complete name is Muhammad son of Muhammad son of Muhammad son of Ta’us Ahmad al-Ghazali al-Tusi al-Shafi’i. Among his surnames are Abu Hamid, the proof of Islam (hujjah al-Islam), the ornament of religion (zayn al-din) and many other attributes attached to him by his admirers. He was born in 450/1058 at Tus. Later on, he got his early education in Islamic jurisprudence at Tus to al-Imam Ahmad al-Radhakani. Afterward he went to Jurjan where he became a disciple of al-Imam Abu Nashr al-Ismai’ili. Here he started writing primarily on Islamic jurisprudence, the result of which undoubtedly is al-Ta’liqah fi al-Furu’. He also studied with the Sufi master Ahmad Ali al-Farmadhi, once pupil of Abu al-Qasim al-Qushayri, the latter is the author of al-Risalah which is a standard book in sufism. Another Sufi who had influenced al-Ghazali in this stage of his life is Yusuf al-Nassaj, about whom al-Ghazali say “At the beginning of my career, I knew nothing of the spiritual states of the righteous and the stations of the gnostics until I associated with my Shaykh Yusuf al-Nassaj in Tus ...”. These facts explain the early influence on al-Ghazali in matter of sufism.
Decisive time in his life came when he arrived in 419/1077 at Nishapur in which he studied with the eminent scholar Abu al-Ma’ali al-Juwayni, surnamed Imam al-Haramayn (the leader of two Holy cities), under whose supervision al-Ghazali studied multi-discipline knowledge. He learned Islamic jurisprudence of Shafi’ite school, principles of Islamic jurisprudence, dialectic, logic, theology, and read philosophy. He remained student of Imam al-Haramayn until Imam’s death in 478/1085.
After his master’s death, al-Ghazali went to Vizier Nizam al-Mulk who used to gather the great Muslim scholars and the Sufis to learn from. In 484/1091, Nizam al-Mulk appointed al-Ghazali, at 34, to teach in the famous al-Nizamiyah school. At this time, al-Ghazali’s fame become so widespread, that, it is said, four hundreds of great scholars of the time came to his lectures. This period of his life was also marked by productivity, in which he wrote many books in different disciplines and did not stop reading, especially books of the Sufi. This restless pursuit of knowledge sequentially will change his life dramatically and resulted in his pilgrimage to Mecca with intention not to go back to Baghdad.
The turning point of al-Ghazali’s life which changes entirely his life and then has deep influence on Muslim world started at 488/1095, in which he went on a pilgrimage to Mecca, and afterward went to Sham where he lived for ten years. In this era, he spent his time mostly in solitude and refining soul, as Sufi would call it. Resulting from this solitary life are many books, most notable of which is Ihya Ulum al-Din (revivification of religious sciences). After spending ten years in solitude, al-Ghazali went back to his native land, Tus. In 499/1106, after strong insistence from the Vizier and consultation with a number of Sufis, al-Ghazali taught again in Nizamiyah school.
Not long after having taught in Nizamiyah, he decided to go back to Tus where he established college for students and khanqah for Sufis. He died at fourteenth of Jumada al-Akhirah 505/1111, while learning two collections of Prophetic Traditions, that of al-Bukhari and Muslim. May Allah give him peace.

AL-GHAZALI’S BOOKS
Al-Ghazali had, and still has, played manifold roles and significantly influences many parts of Muslim world. He is an Islamic jurist (faqih), a theologian, a philosopher—though he destructed philosophy—and a Sufi. It is as the late Grand Sheikh of al-Azhar Mustafa al-Maraghi said that “When al-Ghazali is remembered, it does not occur to our mind only one man (with specific ability), on the contrary, several men with particular capacity come come to mind. Come to mind, at once, al-Ghazali of expert in fundamental of Islamic jurisprudence (al-usuli al-hadziq), al-Ghazali of Islamic jurist (al-faqih al-hurr), al-Ghazali of theologian and the leader of (practice of) Prophetic tradition (al-mutakallim imam al-sunnah), al-Ghazali of sociologist who knows the world’s condition (al-ijtima’i al-khabir bi ahwal al-alam), al-Ghazali of philosopher who opposes philosophy and unveils within it falsity, al-Ghazali of educator, and al-Ghazali of Sufi and ascetic”. So far as testimony of al-Ghazali prolificacy is concerned, we will find not only that of Muslim but also from Western community. Eric Ormsby, commenting a period between 1094-5 within which al-Ghazali wrote no less than eight or nine works, writes “... I can think of no other example in intellectual history, East or West, of such intese and proliffic engagement over shorr so short a span of time, and with such fruitful results”.
His influence can be seen until now through his extensive works on various fields. Abd al-Rahman Badawi classifies al-Ghazali’s works into that which al-Ghazali’s authorship is certain; works which is not certainly written by him; works which is more probably not written by him; works which have different titles or have been separated; works ascribed to al-Ghazali which is in fact not his (manhulah); works which identity is not known (majhulah); and manuscripts which are attributed to him. Here, I will list only his books of which his authorship is certain, according to Badawi, in Islamic jurisprudence and its principles and works in sufism. The choice of mine which to display is somewhat arbitrary.
In Islamic jurisprudence (fiqh) not only he writes books on Islamic jurisprudence but he writes several books on principles of Islamic jurisprudence (usul fiqh). As to the first, he writes al-Ta’liqah fi Furu’ al-Madhhab (probably being the first to be written as related in stories about his earliest study), al-Basith fi al-Furu’ which is said to have been a summarized version of his master’s book Nihayah al-Mathlab fi Dirayah al-Madhhab, al-Wasith, al-Wajiz, and Khulasah al-Mukhtasar wa Naqawah al-Mu’tasar. These books occupy important place in the chain of Islamic jurisprudence books of Shafi’ite school and mostly had been written during early part of his life. Concerning the second al-Ghazali writes—as listed by Abd al-Rahman Badawi in his Muallafat al-Ghazali—al-Mankhul fi al-Usul, Shifa’ al-Ghalil fi al-Qiyas wa al-Ta’lil, Kitab fi Mas’alah Kull Mujtahid Musib, Tahdzib al-Ushul, Kitab Asas al-Qiyas, and al-Mustasfa min Ilm al-Usul.
Among the first to be written by al-Ghazali concerning sufism, following Badawi’s list, is Mizan al-Amal which was written before his period of solitude. On this subject, after that, al-Ghazali wrote Ihya’ Ulum al-Din, al-Maqsad al-Asna fi Sharh Asma’ Allah al-Husna, Bidayah al-Hidayah, Kitab al-Arba’in fi Usul al-Din, Kitab al-Madlnun bih ala Ghayr Ahlih, al-Madlnun bih ala Ahlih, Kimiya’ al-Sa’adah (written in Persia), Ayyuha al-Walad (of Persian origin translated and given this name by another scholar), al-Risalah al-Wa’ziyyah, al-Risalah al-Ladunniyah, Mishkat al-Anwar, al-Kashf wa al-Tabyin fi Ghurur al-Khalq Ajma’in, Tablis Iblis or Tadlis Iblis, al-Munqidh min al-Dlalal wa al-Mufsih an al-Ahwal or wa al-Muwsil ila Dzi al-Izzah wa al-Jalal, al-Imla’ ala Mushkil al-Ihya, al-Istidraj, al-Durrah al-Fakhirah fi Kashf Ulum al-Akhirah, Sirr al-Alamayn wa Kashf ma fi al-Darayn, Asrar Mu’amalat al-Din, and Minhaj al-Abidin ila Jannah Rabb al-Alamin. Among these books, his masterpiece is undoubtedly Ihya’ Ulum al-Din.

REVIVIFYING RELIGIOUS SCIENCES
Badawi lists 109 places in which Ihya’ manuscript is there. He also mentions books written in defending Ihya’, in refusing Ihya’, its commentary, its abdrigments, all of which are thirty nine. added to this list is a number of translations and studies mostly done in Western countries. Ormsby describes it as “A book like no other ”. The reason for this is because “It ranges from the most minute and mundane of details ... to the most lofty subject” and “It is simultaneously a compendium of law, sacred tradition, theology and philosophy, and Sufi lore and theory, as well as a vivid, if inadvertent, depiction of a world”.
This great book is divided into four quarters (rubu’), each of which is comprised of ten books. The number forty has significant meaning as as is repeatedly used in the Holy Qur’an to describe something merit, such as the story of Prophet Moses. In Sufi circle, the number forty means days in which the wayfarer (salik) must go through at the beginning of his Path. The first quarter is the matters of worship (ibadat), which consists of book of knowledge, book of pillars of faith (qawa’id al-aqa’id), book of secrets of ritual purity (asrar al-thaharah), of prayer and its importance (al-salah wa muhimmatiha), of almsgiving, of fasting, of pilgrimage, book of etiquette of reciting Qur’an (adab tilawah al-Qur’an), book of recollections of God name (adhkar) and free prayers (da’awat), and book of supererogatory and extracanonical devotions (tartib al-awrad wa tafsil ihya’ al-layl). The second quarter deals with customs (al-adat), which concerns with daily life’s matter. The books of this quarter are book of etiquette of eating (kitab adab al-akl), of marriage, of earning one’s living and engaging in business (al-kasb wa al-ma’ash), of the lawful and unlawful, of relation with friends and relatives (al-ulfah wa al-ukhuwwah wa al-suhbah), of seclusion (al-uzlah), of traveling (al-safar), and the use of music (al-sam’ wa al-wajd), of enjoining good and forbidding bad, and of daily life and ethics of Prophet Muhammad (al-ma‘ishah wa akhlaq al-nubuwwah).
After dealing with external aspects in two previous quarters, al-Ghazali elaborates internal aspects in two sequent quarters. In the third quarter, he explains things leading to destruction (al-muhlikat), which is made up of book of mysteries of the heart (kitab ‘ajaib al-qalb), of exercising soul and refining characters (riyadlah al-nafs wa tahdhib al-akhlaq), dangerousness of appetites for food and sexual intercourse (afat al-shahwatayn al-bathn wa al-farj), on the weaknesses of the tongue (afat al-lisan), on anger and envy (afat al-ghadb wa al-hiqd wa al-hasad), on censuring worldliness (dhamm al-dunya), on avarice (dhamm al-bukhl wa hubb al-mal), on hypocrisy and love of fame (dhamm al-jah wa al-riya’), on pride and vanity (dhamm al-kibr wa al-‘ujb), and on self-deception (al-ghurur). In the fourth quarter, al-Ghazali describes things leading to salvation (al-munjiyat), which is comprised of book of repentance (kitab al-tawbah), of patience and gratitude (al-sabr wa al-shukr), of fear and hope (al-khawf wa al-raja’), of poverty and asceticism (al-faqr wa al-zuhd), of asserting God's unity and trusting in Him (al-tawhid wa al-tawakkul), of love, longing, intimacy, and contentment (al-mahabbah wa al-shawq wa al-uns wa al-ridla), of intention, sincerity, and purity of intention (al-niyyah wa al-sidq wa al-ikhlas), of self-examination and contemplation (al-muraqabah wa al-muhasabah), of meditation (al-tafakkur), of death and the life to come (dhikr al-mawt wa ma ba’dah).
All these books are usually started, after opening section, with Qur’anic and prophetic quotations and sayings of pious people of the past giving ground for what is discussed. After giving enough basis on which to build, al-Ghazali starts to discuss what he want to do in each chapter. Taking such steps, he tries to set up three authorities, that is, of the Holy Qur’an, of Prophetic Tradition, and of Sufi masters. The order by which al-Ghazali arranges Ihya’ in progression manner from the humblest obligation to the loftiest one reveals that each new theme depends on the previous without having to neglect the first. It is, thus, hierarchical and circular at once.

REACHING THE ULTIMATE GOAL: LOVE AS THE CULMINATION OF STATIONS
The complete title of section in which al-Ghazali explores his theory of love is book of love and longing and intimacy and contentment (kitab al-mahabbah wa al-shawq wa al-uns wa al-ridla), being a sixth book of quarter of (explanation of) things leading to salvation (al-munjiyat). This book contains eighteenth following chapters: explanation of evidences from Shara’ for servant’s love to God; of real meaning of love, its causes, and to find real meaning of servant’s love to God; of that the only One who deserves love is God; of that the greatest and highest pleasure is knowing Him (ma’rifah), of cause of excellency of looking (nazar) in the hereafter’s pleasure over knowing (ma’rifah) in this world; of causes for strengthening love God; of cause of people gradation in love; of cause for people lack of knowledge of Him; of meaning of longing for Him; of His love to servant and its meaning; statement on signs of servant’s love to God; explanation of meaning of intimacy with God; of meaning of heart’s widening (inbisath) fruiting from prevailing intimacy; statement on meaning of contentment in God’s destiny, its real meaning, and its virtue; explanation of the real meaning of contentment and its possibility in things contrary to natural desire; that prayer does not negate contentment; of that escaping from places of sins does not negate contentment; and of stories about lovers, their statements, and their unveilings (mukashafat). From this long list chapters, relevant sections to be read are the first two sections and tenth section. The first is important for grasping Shari’ah and Sufi tradition basis on which al-Ghazali build his theory of love. The second part is elaboration of servant’s love according to al-Ghazali’s theory of love. The tenth section is to explore God’s love according to this theory.
For al-Ghazali love is the ultimate station toward which the previous stations, such as repentance and asceticism, is directed and from which the succeeding stations, like longing and intimacy, origin. He even goes further as to say that love to God and His Messenger is an obligation. In response to those people who deny the existence of love and interpret love, when occurs in the Holy Qur’an and Prophetic Tradition, to be the obedience, he says “How can it be obliged what does not exist and how can love be interpreted with obedience whereas, in fact, it follows from it and is its fruit. To prove this fact, he provides evidences, as he usually does Ihya’, from the Holy Qur’an, Prophetic Tradition, and sayings of the past pious.
Among the clear statement in the Holy Qur’an which convey to us the existence of Divine Love and servant’s love is “God loves them and they love Him”. Still, servant’s love has degrees as in “But those who believe love God more ardently”. The case is more clear when it comes to Prophetic Tradition, as the Prophet saw., in many Traditions, characterizes love as prerequisite for belief (iman). He saw. also commands his followers to love God, saying “Love God for blessings he has given you and love me for God loves me”. One of the Prophet’s prayer is “O God, give me your love, love of those who love you, love of things that make me closer to you. And make your love dearer to me than cold water”. After quoting verses of the Holy Qur’an and Prophetic Traditions, al-Ghazali proceeds with recording some sayings of Abu Bakar al-Siddiq, al-Hasan al-Basri, Abu Sulayman al-Darani, and even Prophet Isa as. Keeping in mind various citation made above, love is already plain thing (amr zahir), as al-Ghazali put it, and the obscurity only occurs in its real meaning, which will be the subject of al-Ghazali’s elaboration.
Al-Ghazali mentions four basic principles to understand love. The first is that love is impossible without knowing (ma’rifah) and perception (idrak) or, to put it differently, both are preconditions for love. Since without knowing and perceiving thing, one cannot love that thing. Therefore, animal’s love is inconceivable for it has no faculty for knowing and perceiving as human being has. The objects perceived (mudrakat) can be either compatible with one’s nature and, thus giving pleasure to him; or in conflict with one’s nature and paining him; or neither both. Thereby, everything giving pleasure to someone is his beloved (mahbub); what one perceives to be painful, he hates it; what is neither the first nor the second is neither beloved nor hated. Then, love is the inclination of one’s nature toward object which gives pleasure (mayl al-tab‘ ila al-shay’ al-mulidhdh).
The second is that since love follows knowledge and perception, then it is imperative that it is divided according to the faculties of knowledge and perception. Every faculty has its own pleasure in its different object. Eyes love beauty, ears love beautiful sounds, and so on. To support this, al-Ghazali reports Prophetic Tradition: “It was made dear (hubbiba) to me three worldly things of yours, i.e., perfume and women. And my spiritual pleasure (qurrah ‘ayni) is made within prayer”. And the strongest faculty to know and perceive is inner faculty which can be referred to as reason (al-aql), light (al-nur), or heart (al-qalb). It follows, from the fact that inner perception is the stronger compared to that of five senses (al-hawass al-khamsah), that one’s inclination toward what is perceived through internal faculty is more powerful and more perfect. It is only those who cannot use their inner sense to perceive divine things will deny the existence of divine love.
The third principle is about explanation of causes which bring about love. The first cause is human being’s natural inclination to love him self, which means his love to his continuous existence and his hate to his non-existence. It also means his love to his perfect existence. From this results love safety of one’s organ, son, family, property, and friends. This love is not for the sake of themselves (la li‘ayaniha), but because their connection with his own interest (lirtibathi hazzih). T The second cause of love is doing good (ihsan). Because it is natural character of human being to love, i.e., to be inclined to, someone who is doing good to him (muhsin). Love caused by doing good is closely related to the that of first kind, that is, to love one’s self. The third to give rise to love is love to people who do good to others although do not do good to the lover. The fourth factor for is love for a thing for virtue of itself (lidhatih), which is true love and guaranteed to be eternal. He gives example like one’s love for beauty, for every beauty is loved by one who perceives it and this love is for the sake of that beauty not for something external to that beauty. The fifth cause is hidden affinity (munasabah khafiyyah) between lover and beloved, for there might be two persons who love each other not because of beauty nor interest (hazz), as the Prophet said: “spirits are regimented battalions (junud mujannadah)”, those who know one another (ta’arafa) associate familiarity together (i’talafa), while those which do not know one another (tanakara) remain at variance (ikhtalafa). Finally, since the Prophet has said that “Indeed God is beauteous and loves beauty”, one to whom His beauty has been revealed will certainly love Him.
The fourth principle is about explanation of beauty. According to al-Ghazali beauty is everything that is perceived by any faculty of perception as beautiful, i.e., giving pleasure. Generally speaking, he defines beauty as “the presence of object’s possible and befitting perfection” (an yahdlura kamaluh al-la’iq bih al-mumkin lah). And everything, sensible or not, has its own specific definition of beauty which is suited for it. The horse beauty is not the same as human beauty and so is the case with other beauties. Closing this section, al-Ghazali says that if all these causes unite in one person, then, love will indeed be multiplied and since these causes are impossible to be united perfectly other than in God, it follows that God is the only One who really deserves love.
As to divine love to human being, al-Ghazali starts his elaboration by quoting Qur’anic verses and Prophetic Traditions which to justify the divine love. He cites “He loves them and they love Him”, “Indeed God loves those who fight for His sake in line”, and “God loves those who repent and those who cleanse themselves” and Prophetic Tradition, to cite the most important, “When my servant constantly draws near to me by works of supererogation, then do I love him, and once I started to love him, I become his eye by which he sees, his ear by which he hears, and his tongue by which he speaks”.
He insists that divine love is real (haqiqah) not metaphorical (majaz). However, love’s significance when attributed to Him is not the same as that attributed to creatures, that is, one’s inclination toward object that gives pleasure and conditioned by causes mentioned above. It is also the case with other God’s attributes. Divine love, then, must be interpreted (mua’wwal) to mean unveiling the veil (kashf al-hijab) from servant’s heart so that he may behold Him with his heart and to mean His strengthening (tamkinuh) for him to draw close to Him. Ultimately, it is His bringing near (taqribuH) from himself by erasing from his sin and purifying his self from worldly dirties and unveiling the veil from his heart so he may be able to contemplate Him (yushahiduH) as he sees Him by his heart. Therefore, this nearness should be understood not in terms of space and time but in good qualities.
If we compare al-Ghazali’s theory of love, we will find that it resembles that of Sufis before him. Al-Kalabadhi records many sayings of Sufis one of which is that of al-Junayd defining “Love is hearts’ inclination”, which al-Kalabadhi interprets as “when one’s heart is inclined to God and to what belongs to Him without pretension (takalluf)”. Al-Qushayri in his book interprets God’s love to his servant as “His will to have blessing upon him”. However, unlike al-Ghazali, he regards it as state (hal). Similar to al-Qushayri, al-Sarraj considers love as state rather than station. He defines condition of love as “When one looks at what God has given him, and sees with his heart to His proximity to him ... and contemplates with his faith and his real certitude (haqiqah yaqinih) to ... His eternal love to him, then he loves Him”.
As a conclusion we may say that al-Ghazali’s theory of love is based, more or less, on his predecessors’ theory. His definition of love as natural inclination can be traced back to al-Junayd definition. As to his conception of divine love, we can clearly discover resemblance with that of al-Qushayri. However, we can clearly see newness in his elaboration of love and of other mystical stations, thanks to his great expertise in explanation and his various readings. Wa Allah ‘Alam wa Huwa Muwaffiquna li ma Yuhibbuh wa Yardlah.

endnotes:

[1] Eric Ormsby, Ghazali, Makers of Muslim World, p. ix.
[2] W. Montgomery Watt, Muslim Intellectual: A Study of al-Ghazali, p. 1.
[3] Margaret Smith, al-Ghazali the Mystic, p. 9.
[4] Salih Ahmad al-Shami, al-Imam al-Ghazali Hujjah al-Islam wa Mujaddid al-Mi’ah al-Khamisah, p. 20.
[5] Eric Ormsby, op. cit., p. 26.
[6] Margaret Smith, op. cit., p. 14.
[7] Salih Ahmad al-Shami, op. cit., pp. 20- 1. Cf. Margaret Smith, op. cit., pp. 15-8.
[8] Salih Ahmad al-Shami, ibid., pp. 21-5.
[9] To know the detailed process by which al-Ghazali’s life transformed see Abu Hamid Muhammad al-Ghazali (a), al-Munqidh min al-Dlalal wa al-Musil ila Dhi al-Izzah wa al-Jalal, pp. 100-6.
[10] Abu Hamid Muhammad al-Ghazali (a), ibid., p. 104.
[11] Salih Ahmad al-Shami, op. cit., p. 25-6.
[12] Margaret Smith, op. cit., p. 31.
[13] Salih Ahmad al-Shami, op. cit., p. 27-8.
[14] Quoted from Abdul Karim al-Uthman, Sirah al-Ghazali wa Aqwal al-Mutaqaddimin fih, p. 11.
[15] Eric Ormsby, op. cit., p. 90.
[16] Abd al-Rahman Badawi, Muallafat al-Ghazali, pp. 1-238.
[17] Ibid., pp. 239-76.
[18] Ibid., pp. 277-302.
[19] Ibid., pp. 303-52.
[20] Ibid., pp. 352-88.
[21] Ibid., pp. 389-426.
[22] Ibid., pp. 427-468.
[23] For detailed list see Abd al-Rahman Badawi, op. cit., pp. 2-238, which list books which authorship is certainly al-Ghazali’s.
[24] Ibid.
[25] Abd al-Rahman Badawi, op. cit., pp. 98-111.
[26] Ibid., pp.112-8.
[27] Ibid,. pp. 118-22.
[28] Eric Ormsby, op. cit., p. 111.
[29] Annemarie Schimmel, Mystical Dimensions of Islam, p. 94.
[30] Eric Ormsby, op. cit., p. 114.
[31] Ibid., p. 118.
[32] Abu Hamid Muhammad al-Ghazali (b), Ihya’ Ulum al-Din, p. 257.
[33] The Holy Qur’an, V: 54.
[34] The Holy Qur’an, II: 165.
[35] Reported by al-Tirmidhi from Ibn Abbas as a good hadith, Zayn al-Din Abd al-Rahim al-Iraqi, al-Mughni ‘an Haml al-Asfar fi al-Asfar fi Takhrij ma fi al-Ihya’ min al-Akhbar, p. 258.
[36] Abu Hamid Muhammad al-Ghazali (b), op. cit., pp. 258-9.
[37] Ibid., p. 259.
[38] Ibid. Cf. Binyamin Abrahamov, Divine Love in Islamic Mysticism, the Teachings of al-Ghazali and al-Dabbagh, p. 44.
[39] Reported by al-Nasa’i without word thalath (three), Zayn al-Din al-Iraqi, op. cit., pp. 259-60.
[40] Reported by Muslim, Zayn al-Din al-Iraqi, op. cit., p. 261.
[41] Abu Hamid Muhammad al-Ghazali (b), op. cit., pp. 260-2.
[42] Ibid., pp. 261-2.
[43] Ibid.,
[44] The Holy Qur’an, V: 54.
[45] The Holy Qur’an, LXI: 4.
[46] The Holy Qur’an, II: 222.
[47] Reported by al-Bukhari, Zayn al-Din al-Iraqi, op. cit., p. 285.
[48] Abu Hamid Muhammad al-Ghazali (b), op. cit., p. 285.
[49] Ibid., pp. 285-7.
[50 ] M. Umaruddin, The Ethical Philosophy of al-Ghazali, p. 180.
[51] Abu Bakar Muhammad al-Kalabadhi, al-Ta’arruf li Madhhab Ahl al-Tasawwuf, p. 128.
[52] Abu al-Qasim Abd al-Karim al-Qushayri, al-Risalah al-Qushayriyah fi ‘Ilm al-Tasawwuf, p. 318.
[53] Abu Nasr Abd Allah al-Sarraj, al-Luma‘ fi Tarikh al-Tasawwuf al-Islami, p. 61.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Abrahamov, Binyamin. Divine Love in Islamic Mysticism, the Teachings of al-Ghazali and al- Dabbagh. London and New York: RoutledgeCurzon. 2003.
Badawi, Abd al-Rahman. Muallafat al-Ghazali. Al-Kuwayt: Wakalah al-Mathbu‘at. 1977.
Ghazali, Abu Hamid Muhammad al-. al-Munqidh min al-Dlalal wa al-Musil ila Dhi al-Izzah wa al-Jalal. Beirut: Dar al-Andalus. 1967.
---. Ihya’ Ulum al-Din. Beirut: Dar al-Kutub al-Ilmiyah. 1998.
Iraqi, Zayn al-Din Abd al-Rahim al-. al-Mughni ‘an Haml al-Asfar fi al-Asfar fi Takhrij ma fi al-Ihya’ min al-Akhbar (on the margin of Ihya’ Ulum al-Din). Beirut: Dar al-Kutub al-Ilmiyah. 1998.
Kalabadhi, Abu Bakar Muhammad al-. al-Ta’arruf li Madhhab Ahl al-Tasawwuf. Beirut: Dar al-Kutub al-Ilmiyah. 1993.
Ormsby, Eric. Ghazali, Makers of Muslim World. Oxford: Oneworld Publications. 2007.
Qushayri, Abu al-Qasim Abd al-Karim al-. al-Risalah al-Qushayriyah fi ‘Ilm al-Tasawwuf. Beirut: al-Maktabah al-Asriyah. 2001.
Sarraj, Abu Nasr Abd Allah al-. al-Luma‘ fi Tarikh al-Tasawwuf al-Islami. Cairo: al-Tawfikia Bookshop.
Schimmel, Annemarie. Mystical Dimensions of Islam. New Delhi: Yoda Press.
Shami, Salih Ahmad al-. al-Imam al-Ghazali Hujjah al-Islam wa Mujaddid al-Mi’ah al-Khamisah. Damascus: Dar al-Qalam. 1993.
Smith, Margaret. al-Ghazali the Mystic. Lahore: Hijra International Publishers. 1983.
Umaruddin, M. The Ethical Philosophy of al-Ghazali. Delhi: Adam Publishers and Distributers. 1996.
Uthman, Abdul Karim al-. Sirah al-Ghazali wa Aqwal al-Mutaqaddimin fih. Damascus: Dar al-Fikr.
Watt, W. Montgomery. Muslim Intellectual: A Study of al-Ghazali. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. 1971.

Degress of Certitude in Islamic Mysticism

2009-03-10T06:52:00.002+07:00

One of central concept within Islamic mysticism is that of yaqin which is translated as certitude or certainty. It is often considered for many as a goal toward which wayfarer (salik) has to head. In the Holy Quran from which the Sufis draw inspiration and terms they use, we find three things attributed to certitude, that are, ilm (knowledge), ‘ayn (eye or essence), haqq (real or reality). These attributes are used to mark degrees to which certitude belongs. The present paper will try to examine certitude in its connection with these three attributes.
According to al-Jurjani in his al-Ta’rifat, the word yaqin literally means unshakeable knowledge, and then is used to mean knowing thing as it really is and being convinced that this reality is not mutable. Other opinion says that it is heart’s tranquility on what really thing is. Ibn Manzhur explains yaqin as heart’s being filled with decisive faith accompanied with firmness of judgment. Yaqin, considering its meaning of verifying things (tathabbut min al-amr), has three opposites, that is, wahm (false impression), shakk (doubt), and zhann (conjecture). All these meanings can be traced in its root YQN, which signifies, when related to water, its steady and changeless. It also can originate from al-yaqnu, signifying piece of wood in the sailor’s hand used as a tool to run the boat. What is attempted here is first to collect various sayings of Sufis concerning this matter.
Talking about what theologians (mutakallimun) term, al-Ghazali explains that there are four things as to extents of soul inclination to belief. The first is shakk (doubt and uncertainty). It occurs when one does not prefer one possibility among two or more alternatives. The second is zhann (supposition while admitting that the contrary may be the case). It is the soul's inclination toward one of possible things. The third is i’tiqad (belief), that is, when soul believes in something and have no alternatives other than that thing, while there is no certain knowledge to support that belief. The fourth is yaqin (certainty). It is when soul knows something and does not doubt it at all, gained by demonstrative evidences and has no possibility to doubt it.

EARLY SUFIS ON YAQIN
I mean by early Sufis those who wrote book on sufism and those whose sayings are quoted before al-Ghazali. Here I will use representative works, such as al-Luma’ of al-Sarraj, al-Ta’aruf of al-Kalabadhi, and al-Risalah of al-Qushairi. In al-Luma’, al-Sarraj categorizes yaqin as one of the states (al-ahwal), contrasted to stations (al-maqamat). He defines al-ahwal as “something happening to the hearts”, furthermore, quoting al-Junaid, it is something descending to the hearts, therefore not lasting. The similar definition is given by al-Hujwiri, defining state as “something that descends from God into a man’s heart, without his being able to repel it when it comes, or to attract it when it goes, by his own effort”.
As to yaqin, al-Sarraj equates it to al-mukashafah (mystical vision), which is, according to him, divided into three kinds; direct vision by sights in the day of judgment, heart vision of the realities of faith (haqa’iq al-iman), and vision of signs by revealing divine sovereignty to the prophets with miracles and to the saints. In contrast to al-Sarraj, al-Qushairi classifies yaqin among spiritual stations (al-maqamat). It is nineteenth station. He identifies three things to indicate yaqin in oneself. They are seeing God in everything, returning to Him in every affair, and seeking His help in every condition.
Al-Kalabadhi collects several sayings of early Sufis concerning yaqin. Al-Junayd says “yaqin is the absence of doubt”, al-Nuri says “yaqin is vision”, and Dzu al-Nun says “what eyes see is related to knowledge, and what hearts see is related to yaqin”.

IBN ARABI ON YAQIN
According to Ibn Arabi, yaqin is noble station between knowledge and tranquility (thuma’ninah). It is whatever one really knows of and soul already accepts, whether or not it already happens. The reason as to why it is divided into three stages is because something could be certitude without having to be knowledge, or vision, or real. It has four pillars, three of which has been widely known is to be found in the Holy Quran and one is reality of certitude. This last is based on Prophetic Tradition which says ”For every truth (haqq), there is reality (haqiqah)”, from which Ibn 'Arabi deduces that for haqq al-yaqin, there is too haqiqat al-yaqin (reality of certitude). Therefore, there are four pillars for yaqin, that is, ‘ilm, ‘ayn, haqq, and haqiqah.
He continues to say that since in the world of meanings (‘alam al-ma‘ani), yaqin is comprised of four things, so is the case with the world of words and expressions (‘alam al-alfazh wa al-‘ibarat), in which word yaqin is made up of four letters; sound al-ya', al-qaf, al-ya' al-mu'tallah and al-nun. Furthermore, Ibn ‘Arabi explores these letters and their correspondence with macrocosm (al-‘alam al-kabir), the world of bodies (‘alam al-abdan), and the world of spirits (‘alam al-abdan).
In the chapter 269 of his magnum opus, al-Futuhat al-Makkiyah, Ibn ‘Arabi immediately expounds what these three stages of yaqin mean. He explains the first as “something given by evidence which accept no doubt”, the second as “something given by direct contemplation (al-mushahadah) and unveiling (al-kashf)”, and the third as “knowledge coming to the heart concerning the reason of that contemplation”.
Defining yaqin as heart’s steadfastness on something, Ibn ‘Arabi gives example the Ka’bah in Mecca. After knowing that the Ka’bah is in Mecca and there is no doubt about this, which is termed as ‘ilm al-yaqin, one may directly see it and, thus, gain ‘ayn al-yaqin, which is more that what he alrealy knows about the Ka’bah. This vision brings about in him taste (dhawq) of what he is seeing, relating to its form and condition. Haqq al-yaqin occurs when God opens his insight as to reason this Ka’bah has been chosen as His house around which pilgrims circumambulate.

IBN AL-QAYYIM ON YAQIN
He is not among the scholars known as Sufi, even some consider him in contrast position. Notwithstanding with this common opinion, he has, however, commentary commentary to al-Harawi’s Manazil al-Sa’irin. Ibn al-Qayyim treats Sufi Doctrines as explanation to the Holy Quran, as elucidated from the title of his work Madarij al-Salikin bayn Manazil Iyyaka Na‘budu wa Iyyaka Nasta‘in.
According to Ibn al-Qayyim, yaqin is the goal of the gnostics (al-arifin) and, when added to it patience (shabr), a man has qualification to be a leader, alluding to the Holy Quran. Yaqin is spirit of heart’s works which are spirits of bodies’ works. It is the reality of the (station of) purity (haqiqah al-shiddiqiyah). It is the axis around which tasawwuf centers. When a salik arrives at yaqin, it comes, then, love of God, fear of Him, gratitude to Him, trust in Him, and return to Him. Commenting whether it is God-giving (wahbi) or achievable (kasbi), Ibn al-Qayyim says that it is kasbi, viewing its causes, and wahbi, considering itself.
Concerning degrees of yaqin, al-Harawi, whose book Ibn al-Qayyim comments, says that it has three degrees, the first is ‘ilm al-yaqin, ‘ayn al-yaqin, and haqq al-yaqin. The first is accepting what appears from the Truth, accepting what disappears for the Truth, and being aware of His Names, Attributes, and Actions. As to the first thing to constitute yaqin, that is, accepting what appears from the Truth, Ibn al-Qayyim says that it is His commands, prohibitions, law, and religion which come through His messengers. We should accept and follow them. Concerning the second, which is accepting what disappears from the Truth, it is the faith in the Unseen (al-ghayb) about which the Truth has reported through His messenger tongues. The third is knowledge of tawhid (declaring God’s oneness), that is, knowing His beautiful Names, Attributes, and absolute perfectness.
The second level of certitude is that of ‘ayn al-yaqin (vision of certitude), i.e., direct vision sufficient from formal information and direct contemplation breaking the veil of knowledge. It is when one sees what he, before, firmly knows. To put it in other word, it is certitude gained through true information and, then, intensified by direct vision.
Haqq al-yaqin (real certitude), according to Ibn al-Qayyim, is not attainable in this worldly life with the exception of the messengers of God, such the Prophet’s ascension in which he saw with his eye heaven and hell; and prophet Moses experience of God's manifestation in Mount Sinai. He, however, does not reject possibility of our tasting of haqq al-yaqin, with regard to realities of faith relating with one's heart and its actions, for it really tastes them. With reference to the matters of the Hereafter, such as directly seeing God, really hearing His words without medium, the believers’ portion of them is faith and ‘ilm al-yaqin, and haqq al-yaqin would be attained in the Hereafter.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Abd al-Razzaq, Mahmud. Al-Mu’jam al-Shufi. Dar Majid Usayri: Jeddah. 2004
Ghazali, Abu Hamid Muhammad bin Muhammad al-. Ihya ‘Ulum al-Din. Semarang: Karya Toha Putra.
Jurjani, Ali bin Muhammad al-. Kitab al-Ta'rifat. Al-Mathba'ah al-Khairiyah.
Ibn ‘Ajibah, Abu al-‘Abbas Ahmad. Iqazh al-Himam. Dar Jawami‘ al-Kalim: Cairo.
Ibn ‘Arabi, Muhy al-Din. Al-Futuhat al-Makkiyah. Dar Shadir: Beirut. 2004.
---. Kitab al-Yaqin. Dar Akhbar al-Yaum.
Ibn al-Qayyim al-Jawziyyah, Abu Abd Allah Muhammad bin Abi Bakr. Madarij al-Salikin bayn Manazil Iyyaka Na’budu wa Iyyaka Nasta’in. Muassasah al-Mukhtar: Cairo. 2001.
Kalabadhi, Abu Bakar Muhammad bin Ishaq al-. Al-Ta’arruf li Madhhab Ahli al-Tasawwuf. Dar al-Kutub al-‘Ilmiyah: Beirut. 1993.
Sarraj, Abd Allah bin Ali al-. Al-Luma. Al-Tawfikia Bookshop: Cairo.
Schimmel, Annemarie. Mystical Dimension of Islam. Yoda Press: New Delhi.
Qushairi, Abu al-Qasim Abd al-Karim al-. Al-Risalah al-Qushairiyah. Al-Maktabah al-Ashriyah: Beirut.

endnotes:
[1]Ali bin Muhammad Al-Jurjani, Kitab al-Ta’rifat, h. 113.
[2] Ibn Manzhur, Lisan al-Arab in Mahmud Abd al-Razzaq, al-Mu’jam al-Shufi, v 3, p. 1072.
[3] Mahmud Abd al-Razzaq, ibid., pp. 1073-4.
[4] Abu al-Abbas Ahmad bin ‘Ajibah al-Hasani, Iqazh al-Himam fi Syarh al-Hikam, p. 310.
[5] Muhy al-Din Ibn ‘Arabi (a), Kitab al-Yaqin, p. 52.
[6] Abu Hamid Muhammad bin Muhammad al-Ghazali, Ihya Ulum al-Din, v. I, p. 72.
[7] Abu Nashr Abd Allah bin Ali al-Sarraj, al-Luma’, p. 46.
[8] Quoted from Annemarie Schimmel, Mystical Dimension of Islam, p. 99.
[9] Ibid., pp. 73-4.
[10] Abu al-Qasim Abd al-Karim al-Qushairi, al-Risalah al-Qushairiyah, p. 180.
[11] Abu Bakar Muhammad bin Ishaq al-Kalabadhi, al-Ta’aruf li Madhhab Ahli al-Tasawwuf, p. 121.
[12] Muhy al-Din Ibn ‘Arabi (a), op. cit., p. 52.
[13] Muhy al-Din Ibn ‘Arabi (b), al-Futuhat al-Makkiyah, v. III, p. 238.
[14] Muhy al-Din Ibn ‘Arabi (a), op. cit., p. 56.
[15] Ibid., pp. 66-78.
[16] Muhy al-Din Ibn ‘Arabi (b), op. cit., v. IV, p. 227.
[17] Ibid., p. 227-8.
[18] The Holy Quran chapter al-Sajdah verses 24.
[19] Ibn al-Qayyim al-Jawziyyah, Madarij al-Salikin bayn Manazil Iyyaka Na’budu wa Iyyaka Nasta’in, pp. 124-5.
[20] Ibid., pp. 128-9.
[21] Ibid., p. 129.

Religion and Din

2009-02-08T16:33:00.001+07:00

In welcoming newly-born baby, Farzan Esfandiar

Following Huntington’s theory, the core of any civilization is what is recognized as religion,[1] which, without referring to any definition given by scholars, is commonly understood as reference to the Divine. This gives an impression of its primary importance in shaping every aspect of human life. Nevertheless, its meaning is still blurry and this has been more so by globalization which undermines most of traditional values. For religion is determinant part of, broadly put, any social order, it is interesting to find out what religion is, understood within its Latin root and its derivational forms in the Western. As comparison, it will be tried also to examine the concept of din comprehended within Islamic understanding, which is commonly translated as ‘religion’, yet it has different meaning.
A number of difficulties has been felt by scholars who try to define the word religion. Anthony Thiselton identifies obstacles to be, at least, three facts. The first is diversity of what is to be called as religion. The second is the impossibility of value-neutral knowledge used in study of religion. The third is the usage of sociological or ‘ideological criticism’ approach in understaning religion rather than theological or philosophical approaches.[2] In explaining religion, many various definitons show presuppositions marked by background of the person who makes the definition. It is either academic or dogmatic.[3]

As starting point, it is proper to list some meanings offered by dictionary. Funk and Wagnall’s dictionary describe religion as “A belief in an invisible superhuman power” which brings to man responsible and dependent feeling and consciousness, morality and practices, resulting from that belief.[4] Starting from other direction, Nuttall’s Standard Dictionary of the English Language defines religion as “A habitual, all pervading sense of dependence on, reverence for, and responsibility to, a higher power; or a mode of thinking, feeling and acting, which respects, trusts in, and strives after, the Divine, or God, any system of faith and worship”.[5] From these two different definitions, we can understand that religion comprise of some elements, that is, a belief in Divine; from and toward which spring feelings, moralities, and, for some, modes of thinking; all these result in pratices and worships. Therefore, there are two dimensions of religion, namely, exoteric and esoteric. The first is visible and observable to other people; moralities, practices and worships, while the second is concealed; belief and feelings.
Dealing with formal aspect of religion, Kant defines it as “the sum of all duties as divine commands”.[6] From its psychological and anthropological aspect, Schleiermacher offers other explanation of religion as “the highest are unlocked”, and, furthermore, he differentiates between culture and art on one hand and religion on the other, saying that the former is produced by human creativity and the latter sense and taste for the Infinite. From psychological and ontological perspective, it is consciousness encouraging relationality between persons and between them and God. It is “neither a knowing or a doing, but a modification of feeling or of immediate . . . consciousness” and is “more, but not less, than a feeling and immediacy (Gefuhl) of absolute dependence on God”.[7]
As to term din, it has different meaning as its Western counterpart, that is, religion. Since Arabic, as other semitic language, has very structured root system, we have to trace its origin and diverse forms and meanings, from which, then, we can derive its full meaning. Its verb, dana, has three forms in relation to the object. It is self-transitive, which signifies judiciousness, power and its relating meanings. When the word dana is transitive with lam, it indicates submission and obedience. When it is transitive with ba’, it denotes confessing a belief and acting accordingly. These meanings can be summed up as submissiveness, that is, viewing the first meaning, compulsion of submission (ilzam al-inqiyad); considering the second, it is commitment to submission; and the third is the principle by which submission is done.[8]
Similar to the description of din given by Darraz is al-Attas’. He identifies four main significances of din, out of numerous meanings which although seemingly contrary to each other are nevertheless related, constituting one harmonious unity. They are indebtedness, submissiveness, judicious power, and natural inclination.[9] To understand these coherently, we have to go back to the doctrine of primordial covenant sealed by human being in its pre-existent condition elucidated in the Holy Quran.[10]
As a conclusion we may say that concept of religion understood in the West is based on inquiry of the so-called phenomenology of religions, and fails to give full explanation when it comes to speak about divine and metaphysics, since its methodology neither affirms belief in one particular metaphysical system nor regards it as reliable in ‘scientific’ investigation. Whereas the concept of din is grasped within Quranic framework, which can be scientifically proven by examing its semantical interconnection in Arabic language.

endnotes
[1] Samuel P. Huntington, the Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order, p. 42.
[2] Anthony Thiselton, A Concise Encyclopedia of the Philosophy of Religion, pp. 255-6.
[3] Ibid., p. 185.
[4] Ron Hubbard, Scientology of Religion, p. 8
[5] Ibid., p. 9.
[6] Martin Moors, Kant on Religion in the Role of Moral Schematism, in Philosophy and Religion in German Idealism, p. 28.
[7] Anthony Thiselton, op. cit., pp. 257-8.
[8] Muhammad Abdullah Darraz, al-Din Buhuts Mumahhidah li Dirasah Tarikh al-Adyan, pp. 61-2.
[9] S.M.N. Al-Attas, Prolegomena to the Metaphysics of Islam, pp. 41-2.
[10] Al-A’raf (7): 172. for extensive explanation on din within Islamic context, read S.M.N. Al-Attas, ibid., pp. 41-57.

Islamic Political Theory: a Preliminary Note

2009-01-26T18:21:00.001+07:00

Islam is not merely a religion, in the Western sense of the word. The failure of comprehending the nature of Islam will bring about confusion of many concepts relating to it. One of the most misunderstood is the Islamic theory concerning political and govermental affair. To fully grasp it, we need to first understand Islam in general to capture to context within which we put the political theory. It is important by virtue of its unifying nature and pervasiveness extending to all aspect of human being, and public affair is one of human aspects regulated by Islam. Unlike Christianity, Islam does not ever recognize, both conceptually and historically, what is known in the West as separation between church and state. The Islamic teaching is all-pervading and this means that Islam has set principles to every aspect of human in relating with God, himself, society, and state. Some rules are clear, explicit, and unchangeable, such those relating with religious practice, while others only detemines general rules to follow, like those of social affair.
Through Quranic revelation and exemplary life of the Prophet saw., God Almighty has guided Muslims and provides them with creed, ritual and moral injunctions to direct Muslims’ life. The most central to Islamic teaching is the principle of tawhid, which originally means the oneness of God but has direct impact to the everything. It is this faith that makes up entire life of a Muslim as an individual as well as a part of community. This faith is also reflected in the whole principles of Islamic teaching known as shari’a, which no part of it can be comprehended or applied separately. It must be understood in its entirety and implemented totally. Therefore, it is not possible to conceptualize Islamic political idea and Islamic state apart from Islamic teaching as a whole.

There is no distinction in Islam between private and public affair, as experienced in Western history. All are connected each other and not to be differentiated. In contrast to what happen to Christian, to be a good Muslim does not mean to abstain from worldly concern; on the contrary it means to fully get involved in daily life and making good for human being.
In what follows, I will try to describe some aspect of Islamic political theory grounded on its two primary Sources, as other areas are. For the philosophical perspective, Islamic political theory is normative in the sense that it is essentially based on and aimed at ethical ends. Islamic ethical values, being the basis, the way, and the end, have shaped patterns in which Islamic govermental system have been built. The highest ethical ideal in Islam is to worship Him, for human being was created to do so. This means to be completely submissive to His will as revealed in the Holy Quran and exemplified by the Prophet saw. These Two Sources comprise the whole shari’a and later were, and still are, elaborated by the Muslim scholars. This ethical ideal is the foundation on which Muslim community builds its allegiance and emotional tie, unifying them into a single brotherhood sharing the same moral code which is ultimately established on the belief in one God, regardless of their tribal, ethnological, and geographical background.
Practically, Islam provides its adherents with certain laws and institutions in which to make sure the implementation of Islamic social order and moral development. These laws and institutions are largely influenced by the Islamic culture which is basically is inspired by Islamic ethical norms. Muslim society is closely related to religious ideal of Islam. Social order resulted from Muslim society then forms Islamic polity, which example are the Prophet and the first Islamic community. This social order is accomplished by contractual structure and, as in other Islamic aspect, built upon an ethical ideal.
As for as sovereignty in Islamic state, so to speak, is concerned, it is Almighty God who has the absolute and ultimate authority in every aspect of it. The faith in unity of God gives rise to the doctrine of the unity of human race, since all human beings belong to Him. And for Muslims is to act as His vicegerents and become leaders of the rest of humankind. For their guidance to do this task, they have been guided by the Quran, the verifier and guardian of previous scripture, and the Sunna of the Prophet saw. Teleogically speaking, the state of God is for the refinement of the world order and lifting humankind to the better condition in this world as well as in the hereafter. The shari’ah is the means by which Islamic state strives to reach this goal. This means that, in Islamic state, religion, i.e. Islam, plays central role touching all spheres of its citizens.
Since the real sovereignty is in God’s hand, no one in Islamic society, not the whole Community has right to assert sovereignty, unless under the sovereignty of God. This supreme sovereignty is granted to the consensus of the Community, which choose one of them to be their leader and have privilege to abolish him, since the leader is not excepted from being the subject of law to which all people have to obey. He is elected and adhered to as long as he perform what he should do according to the law of the shari’a, from which the Community and the leader are deprived. This kind of equal status and civil society is the characteristic of Islamic politics. Instead of making a set of law, the responsibility of the Community and the leader is to implement the Rule of God (the shari’a) according to the Book of God and the traditions of the Prophet. The terms of Islamic polity are taken from the Quran and the Sunna, and so are the management of doing affairs of the state. The leader must consult the Majlis Shura (consultative group of ulama) in running state affairs. The same is applied with regard to material wealth issue, which has to be circulated among all, not only among the rich.
The constitution in Islamic state can neither be amended nor modified, since it is the Quran and the Sunna. But, at the same time, it is adaptable to all conditions, by virtue of both Sources. To run this constitution, there must be people who have deep understanding of the Sources and, therefore, they must be Muslims. The non-Muslims in an Islamic state have the equal civil rights as their Muslim counterparts and enjoy the same protection from the state.
has right to make law in the name of God.

Defining Secularization and Secularism

2009-01-07T19:27:00.001+07:00

To describe both terms, it is imperative upon us to first define their root, that is, secular. According to Al-Attas what is emphasized in this term is condition in this particular time seen as historical process [1]. According to Jose Casanova, it is a category by which we define the entirety of contemporary Western civilization, that is, from theologico-philosophical, legal-political, and cultural-anthropological aspect of it. And as Azzam Tamimi has rightly shown, this secular notion cannot be correctly comprehended outside the Western civilization context. Thus, to speak the concept of secular is first to understand it within the particular context of Western civilization. However, this humble writing is not intended to deeply discuss it; instead it merely tries to talk about several definitions concerning secularization and secularism offered by scholars. Both terms will be treated as something related and, many times, overlapping each other.

Secularization is generally regarded as a process of differentiation between “religious” and “secular”. We can speak of it, utilizing categories made by Jose Casanova, through three perspectives; theologico-philosophical, cultural-anthropological, and legal-political. From the first angle, Al-Attas say that secularization is liberation of human reason and language from control of something religious and metaphysical; and turning human attention from the world beyond into this world. In somewhat different context, Tamimi, when talking about object of secularization within Arab society, characterize it as “to effect a complete break with the past”, i.e., to set apart Muslims’ consciousness from their past, the Islamic Tradition. Linked to this category also is description of modern secularism given by Barry Kosmin, which, according to him, is divided into two types; hard and soft secularism. The former considers religious propositions as epistemologically illegitimate, since not warranted by both religion itself and experience. The latter holds the impossibility of reaching absolute truth and, consequently, skepticism and tolerance should be standard by which we look at other’s opinion. According to Ikado Fujio, it is "the process whereby transcendental sources of value come to be expressed by the use of future-oriented symbol systems, such as `hope'.” Thus, secularization involves setting apart of human intellectually and individually from religious control, the Tradition, religious propositions, and religious consciousness.
Another approach to understand secularization is through cultural-anthropological perspective, which is, in many cases, more apparent. Culturally it means “the disappearance of religious determination of the symbols of cultural integration”. In Arab context, it is “the marginalization of Islam or its exclusion from the process of re-structuring society during both the colonial and post-independence periods”. This suggests that Islam is excluded as much as possible from shaping the society. It is also differentiation of things “secular”; like economy, science, art, entertainment, health, and welfare; from those “religious”; such as ecclesiastical institution and church’s activities. It also means “the transfer of activities from religious to secular institutions, such as a shift in provision of social services from churches to the government.” We may conclude that secularization culturally and socially is the disappearance of religious symbols, omission of religion’s role in shaping society, differentiation between what is secular, i.e., related to this world only and what is religious, i.e., related to the world beyond, and moving social activities from religious to secular institutions.
From legal-political perspective, secularization is “the taking over of church property by the state for secular purposes”. It also means separating government from religious institutions and is choosing man-made law as a state constitution instead of laws which are derived or inspired by religion. It is, thus, overtaking the governmental role of religion by the state governed solely by human reasoning.
With regard to secularism, many definitions have been suggested by scholar. Here I will employ

Theological Debate Between the Mu'tazilites and the Ash'arites on the Relation of God to Time and Space

2008-12-18T08:46:00.004+07:00

The Mu’tazilites said that God is above time and space. First part of this statement seems to have direct support from the Holy Quran. It says that “He is the First and the Last”, which means that He should not be construed in time-relating understanding. The second part, i.e. that God is above space, does not have the same degree of support from the Holy Quran.
Holding this in mind, the Mu’tazilites have to interpret some verses of the Holy Quran that is seemingly contradictory to what they hold. For example, they interpret istawa ‘ala al-Arsh (literally meaning ‘established on the Throne’), the famous phrase taken from surah Tha Ha, to mean istawla ‘ala al-Arsh which means to get mastery over the Throne which is understood as His Kingdom. If they do not do so, that is to explain the verse metaphorically, it will reduce the Deity to material being and, consequently, created being.
Since the Mu’tazilites insist to interpret istawa as istawla, it makes them involved in the problem of the whereabouts of God, which the Mu’tazilites themselves have different perspectives about this. Abu al-Hudhail al-Allaf and the majority of the Mu’tazilites hold that God is everywhere, that is, He is the Ruler of every place or His Rule governs eveery place. Another Mu’tazilites, such as Hisham al-Fuati and Abu Zufar, maintain that He is everywhere He is. In this two cases, the Mu’tazilites exhort to avoid physical, anthropological interpretation. The emphasize of the absoluteness of God is the central concern of Mu’tazilites.

This opinion that God is above space and metaphorical intrepretation of seemingly anthropomorphic verses contained in the Holy Quran are countered by al-Ash’ari. In the book which is said to have been written by him, al-Ibanah ‘an Ushul al-Diyanah*, istawa ‘ala al-arsh is interpreted as He has seated Himself on the Throne which is located above the seventh, i.e., in the highest place. To support this, he has utilized various proofs from the Holy Quran, the Prophet’s Tradition, the Ijma’ (Muslims consensus), philological proof, logical proof, and philosophical proof.
From surah Ghafir verses 36 and 37 “And Pharaoh said : O Haman! Build for me a tower that haply I may reach the roadx, the roads of the heavens, and may look upon the God of Moses though verily I think Him a liar”. Here, Pharaoh refutes that God is verily above the the heavens. From surah al-Mulk verse 16 “Have ye taken security from Him Who is in the heaven that He will not cause the earth to swallow you”. The heaven in this verse is interpreted to be the Throne of God which is above the seventh heaven.
Several Traditions is used to prove that God is on the throne which is above the heaven. Here are some of them: reported by Muslim that the Prophet has said: “God, may He be Exalted and High, descends every night to the lowest heaven, and then says: ‘Is there any body to seek favour from Me that I may give it and is there any body to beg pardon of me that I may pardon him’ and so on until the day dawns”; Abdullah son of al-Abbas is reported to have said: “Reflect on the creation of God and not on Him. For, there is between His Throne and the heaven a distance of one thousand years journey and God, may He be Exalted and High, is above that”; when a man came to the Prophet with a negress and said: “O Apostle of God! Verily I desire to liberate her by way of an atonement. Is it permissible for me to do so?” The Prophet of God said to her: “Where is God?”, she answered: “In the heaven”, the Prophet asked her again: “Who am I?”, she replied: “Thou art the apostle of God”. Then the Prophet of God said: “Set her free, for she is a believer”.
The consensus among Muslims that Jesus has been raised to the heaven and that it is allowed for them to raise their hands towards heaven while praying shows that God, the Exalted and the High, has seated Himself on the Throne which is above the seventh heaven. It is also a consensus among them to pray to God by saying “O! Dweller on the Throne”. And when they swear, they say: “By Him who screens Himself with the seven heavens”. From philological perspective, it is not acceptable to interpret istawa as to get mastery over the Throne. For, it will mean that He, the Exalted and the High, has also got mastery over the latrines insofar as He has got mastery over every thing, which no Muslim will consider it to be a valid statement. Istawa should not mean to get mastery, which can be used for anything, but must mean sitting, which is applied particularly to the Divine Throne.
Logically, if God is in every place, as held by the Mu’tazilites, then He, the Exalted and the High, will be in the womb of the Virgin Mary and the latrines, since both are places. But this, as it is clear, is no single Muslim would accept. Astronomically, by maintaining God’s transendence without seeing His imanence, the Mu’tazilites has reduced Him to mere an abstraction.
In response to these refutations, the Mu’tazilites said that God’s descending as quoted in some Prophet’s Tradition is not in conflict with what the Mu’tazilites hold. For, it is descending of the angels sent by God and not of God Himself. And so is the case with the fact that Jesus has been raised to the heaven, since for the Mu’tazilites the heaven is as much near to God as the earth or any other place. Concerning another Ijma’ of Muslims’ prayer, it is resulted from common notion to speak one greater in rank as one higher in place. Therefore, for Muslims, He has been metaphorically conceived as being in the highest place.
The followers of al-Ash’ari are not in agreement with so-called al-Ash’ari’s opinion explained above. One of the eminent Ash’arites, Imam al-Haramain, informed us as to al-Ash’ari’s thought concerning the meaning of istawa, saying that al-Ash’ari has said: “God was while there was no space. He then created the Throne and the Chair. And He was not in need of space. After the creation of space He remained exactly as He was before. And al-Istiwa’ is an attribute of God like His other attributes, and is also an action of His which He has done in relation to His Throne.”
Imam Haramain interpreted istawa as qahara wa ghalaba ‘ala meaning to get the upper hand or mastery over, not as istaqarra ‘ala meaning settling on. This second interpretation will reduce the Deity to the physical thing. To prove his statement, he has utilized several proofs. From the Holy Quran surah al-Hadid verse 4 “And He is with you wheresoever ye may be” and surah Ali Imran verse 33 “Is He Who is aware of the deserts of every soul?”, Imam Haramain inferred that God’s presence stated in the above verses can only understood as His knowledge and comprehension, for it is absurd to understand it as physical presence. Therefore, it is valid to interpret istawa as to get mastery over (al-qahru wa al-ghalabah). In Arabic literary, we can find word istawa which means to get mastery over the kingdom (ihtiwa’ ‘ala maqalid al-mulk and isti’la’ ‘ala al-riqab). All Muslims are united in belief that God is above direction, and the common conception that the Throne is the biggest thing in the realm of God is to emphasize God’s mastery over all things, big or small ones, by stating His control over the Biggest one. With regard to Prophet’s Traditions reporting God’s descending, it is His angels descending. For other Traditions which is ahad, i.e., not reported by many people, Imam Haramain considers those not sufficient in explaining the creed problems.
Another Ash’arites, Fakhr al-Din al-Razi, insists that the anthropormist’s belief that God is sitting in His Throne is wrong according to reason and authority. Philosophically, God, the Exalted and the High, existed when there was no the Throne nor space, and He is independent of His creatures as He was. And also the sitter on the Throne necessitates two sides, suggesting that he is compound substance, and this is absolutely absurd with reference to the Deity.
The sitter on the Throne can move of cannot. If the first is the case, then He is like His creatures who have movements. If the latter, He becomes like a person with disability. Far be both from Him! God according to anthropomorphist either exists in every place of some particular places. If the former, then He will be also in the places of dirt, which is unacceptable. If the second alternative, there should be a reason in choosing one place to another. The settlers in a particular place cannot be god, for they must be subject to motion.
Al-Fakhr al-Razi also gives Quranic proofs to demonstrate the mistake of the anthropomorphist. Quoting the famous verse of God’s transendency “Naught is as His likeness”, he says that if sitting is excepted from this verse, it will mean that this verse is not absolute but relative and also sitting, which needs a body to sit, must be similar to that of His creature. Another verse which seems to justify anthropomorphic interpretation is “And eight will uphold the throne of their Lord that day above them”. If taken literally, this would that God needs His creatures, which the contrary is the truth, i.e., the creatures is in absolute need of Him. Prophet Abraham’s expression, as cited in the Holy Quran “He said: I love not things that set”, shows that He is not body. For, if He is so, what Abraham said will also be applcable to Him, since He is always invisible to our bare eyes.
Astronomically, considering globular nature of our earth, the above for us will be the beneath for those living in the antipode. And if He has direction, He will be above for some and beneath for others, which is not an acceptable statement. All Muslim is in one agreement that the verse “Say: He is Allah, the One” is the muhkamat (sound) verse, not the mutashabihat (ambivalent). Keeping this in mind, it is impossible to say that He has His own space, implying His bodiness. So based on the sound meaning of this verse, istiqrar (to rest at a place) for God is unreasonable.
So far as the ambivalent and ambiguous verses and Prophetic Traditions are concerned, there are two different opinions. The first hold that we should not try to interpret these verses. Instead, we have to be fully convinced that God is above time and space. As reported by al-Ghazali, al-Imam Ahmad bin Hanbal, who has collected thousands of Traditions of the Prophet, has only interpreted three Traditions concerning this problem and nothing more. This passive position, to say so, toward the mutashabihat was criticized by al-Fakhr al-Razi, regarding this as weak for several arguments; if we hold that God is above space and time, we will have believe that by istiwa’ God does not mean sitting, and this is what the ta’wil is all about; if we are not convinced that God is above time and space, we betray our ignorance of Him except that we say that God seem to mean something other than signification of the Holy Quran. But we do not venture to express it in many words to avoid the risk of that we fall into error. This view is imperfect, since if we affirms that God has revealed His word in Arabic language, we must know that most part of revelation is understandable to the Arabs. Because the word istiwa’ contains two meanings, istiqrar (to settle) and isti’la’ (to get master), and the former is absurd attributive to God, the latter is the only alternative meaning last to interpret the word istiwa’. The second tendency is to explain away the mutashabihat by the mean of ta’wil, which is, according to al-Fakhr al-Razi, inevitable.
Based on two opposite positions, al-Fakhr al-Razi made four different point to consider. First, we shall act up to both views severally and individually. Second, the exact opposite of the first. Third, we should choose authority prior to reason. And fourth, we choose the contrary. The first is preposterous and so is the second. The third cannot defended since affirmation of the authority needs reason. The only remaining choice is the judgment of reason in explaining the authority, for this reason then istiwa’ here means to get mastery.
The point which to explore by al-Fakhr al-Razi is that God is above space. The view that God is above place and time is also the view of another Sunni school, i. e. the Maturidites, as conserved by al-Nasafi in his book.

endnote:
*It should be noted that what is contained within recent publication of this book should not always be attributed to al-Ash’ari, for it is reported that this book is fabricated under his name. For more proofs concerning this problem, see http://salafytobat.wordpress.com/2008/06/19/bukti-wahabi-selewengkan-fakta-kitab-al-ibanah-2/

An Overview on Religious Pluralism*

2008-11-20T14:20:00.003+07:00

For some people religious pluralism is a belief that conflicts existing between competing truth claims of religions can be overcome. It tries not to underestimate other religious traditions by finding common ground between one’s own tradition and others’, while neglecting the differences they consider to be not essential. This belief brings about an attitude that is the original objective of religious pluralism. However, in most cases this view have no theological basis within religious literal tradition.
The precondition for religious pluralism to exist is freedom of religion, that is, to equal rights of different religions within a society. Therefore, when this precondition is not fulfilled, by means of giving one religion more privilege or eliminating all religious activity, religious pluralism will soon disappear. Like what has happened to communist countries where religious activitiy is totally forbidden.
Many religion believers believe that religion pluralism means cooperation between religions and, hence, substituting rivalry spirit with more mutual understanding. For religious pluralism to happen there must be societal and theological modification within each religion.

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
The origin of this thought might be traced to European history after reformation and enlightment in which a movement to reform abuses of Roman Catholic Church emerged. Roman Catholic had suppressed other religions like Islam and Judaism to the extent that the people of these religions cannot practice their religions freely. The Reformation which marked the emergence of Protestantism did not fully eliminate discrimination against the minor sects within Christianity and other religions. Since, in places, such as England, Scotland, and Ireland, Protestant Churches did the same things as their Catholic counterpart. Even smaller Protestant denominations in these countries sought freedom to North America when their freedom was limited, and again when these groups become dominant they did the same restriction to those outside their circle.
Founding Fathers of the United States were influenced by Protestant and freethinking philosopher like John Locke and Thomas Paine who insisted on tolerance and moderation in religion. This brought equality and freedom to the American constitution. Different religions are supposed to be treated equally. This does not mean that each people there has to believe that every religion is equally true, on the contrary, there are many religious institutions which claim to have way of salvation exclusively.

LITERAL AND SPIRITUAL TRUTH
Religious pluralism does not say that all religions and sects within a religion are completely and equally true, for it is impossible for diametrically different faiths to be true at the same time. Like the Christians’ belief of Jesus’ crucifixion which all Muslims are convinced that he is saved and ascended. Surely, one of these conflicting faith is true and other false.
However many modern religious pluralists believe that there is no religion which can legitimately claim to preach the absolute truth. They base their opinion on the what they assume to be true, i.e., that religion is not precisely the revealed word of God. It is merely a humanly creative interpretation to it. Assuming active role of man in revelation and his imperfect nature, no single scriptural text is considered to fully originate from God, and, hence, it cannot perfectly explain God and His will. The whole truth—to say so—cannot be apprehended through only one religion. All religions share the same effort to catch that truth using their cultural and historical factors.
The notion of cultural and historical text is because religious pluralists find that almost all religious texts cannot avoid from being influenced from human-historical factors, and, they infer that there is nothing of these religious texts to be considered fully divine origin. Therefore, disticntion needs to be made between what is transcendent, and therefore permanent, and what is changeable.
Recently, religious pluralism has developed into its maximal form, that is, the view that all religions are equally true. This trend is brought about by post-modern philosophies, particularly deconstructionism. Many criticisms to this thought underline its self-contradictory tendency.
For about a century ago, liberals within Judaism and Christianity reform some of their faiths to make them compatible with religious pluralism. They maintain that their convictions are not the only way to salvation, rather they only believe that their religion are the most perfect revelation to the human kind. It should be noted that comparison implied in “the most perfect” means that there are many alternative, however imperfect, ways of salvation together with theirs. This thought enable them to assume that there is a common ground underlying all religions and that some aspects of God may be captured by other religion while are neglected within their own religions. They call this as theological humility compared to intellectual humility that every scientist should have, that is, admitting the possibility of other’s finding the truth.
However, conservatives in Christianity refuse these thoughts and still hold that their way is the only way to God, while many of them admit the different religious expressions and the new one will give new understanding to the dogmas.
To develop religious pluralism within every one’s religion has now become an obligation for many people. It is since our view of humanity has changed and requires a new approach to our life. The advance of science, development of information technology, and questions raised by modern philosophers have forced people to rethink their view regarding this world.
Retrospective form of religious pluralism can be found in many religions. That is to accept religion prior to one’s religion and reject religion which after one’s own. Such as three Abrahamic faith, Christianity can accept Judaism as the valid religion but reject Islam and consider it as heretical sect out of Christianity, and so is the case with Islam and Christianity.
In Greek and Roman era in which religion is polytheistic, pluralism was easily done by absorbing other gods originating from other tradition, or rarely they add new god adopted from others, into their own religion.

INTER-RELIGIOUS PLURALISM
Classical Christian view hold that Christianity is the only way through which God is reached, and if it is done, the result will be damnation. Christians believe that Jesus, God literally made flesh, was crucified to save human kind from such damnation and by accepting beliefs in Christianity a person could gain meaningful life and happines in the hereafter. All other people outside Christian are destined to damnation, this is what their doctrine, extra ecclesiam nulla salus, means.
For them the consequence of denying trinity is the eternal death. In spite of that some still regard Christianity as egalitarian, because it teaches that people potentially have the same opportunity to gain salvation through entering Christianity.
Traditional Christian will see religious pluralism in its maximal form as self-contradictory, because it is impossible for two competing claims of truth to be equally true. This view is also held by most Jews and Muslims. For Christians, Christianity is the most absolute revelation revealed to human kind, and other religions, although may have lesser revelation, are not equally true. So, to be pluralist means not to be Christian in full sense and vice versa.
Church is often identified as a hospital. The doctor will care a patient in the best-suited way according the condition of the patient, instead of following what a patient wants. And following what pluralist say will be similar to “pillow prophets” who prophesies what the king wanted to hear instead of sincerely telling God’s word. Thus, all Christians must invite human kind to Christianity which is the way to salvation.
To this view, it is a contradiction to acknowledge legitimacy of Christian’s practices while rejecting beliefs underlying them. If a person deny to believe that the Eucharist is Christ’s body and blood, it means that he rejects it as unifying medium to God.
Currently, some Christians change their view on their religion and others and start to accept religious pluralism. This socially leads to reconciliation with other faith especially Judaism but theologically requires adjustment to their faith they hold before. Reconciliation between Judaism and Christianity is done by viewing the New Testament as extended covenant to cover non-Jews. It implies that Judaism is still the valid religion. Furthermore it allows relationship between both sides to improve. It also stresses Chritians’ regret of anti-Jewish attitude and of theology of “Replacement”. Many Christian groups of this kind, including Catholic Church and several large Protestant Churches, declare not to convert Jews to Christianity. Yet, for most Christians, including most conservative Protestant, New Testament is not an extended covenant as understood above.
The Eastern Orthodox Church views that Orthodox Church is the only salvation but, at the same time, does not limit God’s will to save whomsoever He pleases. This seemingly contradictory position is explained by comparing it to Noah’s Ark. It says that while Noah’s Ark is the safest place to go through the flood, it is within God’s power to save people outside the Ark. Keeping this in mind, Orthodox Christian must encourage people to take the safer path by which they will gain salvation. For the Orthodox the one and only thing leading to perdition is blasphemy against Holy Spirit. However, the question on human kind salvation is only secondary for them, stressing that one should care of own salvation more than other’s.
Islam, as other monotheistic religions, affirms that it is the only salvation way and considers other monotheistic faiths as valid, for they constitute the single Truth revealed through human history. The most important creed of Islam is witnessing that there is no god but Allah and Muhammad PBUH is His messenger. Renouncing this would mean entering hell.
But this apparently very exclusive claim does not mean intolerance to other religious traditions. On the contrary, Muslim history, mainly in golden era, witnessed very tolerant relationship with other religions. The Muslims ruler guaranteed the freedom of practicing other religion, which this is the very preaching of Prophet Muhammad PBUH, with taxation, namely jizyah. Minor religions, such as Mandeans, Zoroasterians, and Hindu, can still perform freely their religious activities, an obvious contradiction to what happened to Muslim minorities in the Europe Renaissance.
Islam has never instructed its adherents to forcibly convert non-Muslim into Islam, notwithstanding the widespread allegation that Islam is spread by sword. What truly happened is Islam extends together with Muslims’ conquest. The so-called persecution in Islamic history is due to cruel ruler and economic hardship.
Religious debates lived in the time of Muslim govermennt and resulted in many works which are interesting for many people learning theology. When this debate spread to the unlearned masses, rulers interfere to pacify them. As far as sects within Islam, there are various patterns. In some places, different sects can live harmoniously, while in others, especially when one sect is in power, clash cannot be avoided.
Baha’ism discourages the intolerance between religions, saying that God is one and has sent messengers through history, therefore we have to be united and give our love, reflecting God’s love, to people of all religions. Baha’ism has the concept of “Progressive Revelation” underlining the different stages undergone by humanity. Its founder, Baha’ullah, claims that he is one of the messengers sent to human kind and says whatever is said by any prophet must be true.
Hinduism is by nature a pluralistic religion. It may willingly recognize other religions’ degree of truth. It will easily subsume deities of religions into its system. This, in turn, makes the relationship between between Hindus and adherents of all religions harmonious.
However, this is not always the case. In India where Hindus become majority, there is grave conflict. The source of this conflict is said to be Muslims’ view that Hindus are the worst infidels. As response, Hindus view Muslims as hostile to their religion. Muslims built masjids in the place of temples, causing riots, such as what happened in 1992 at the Babri masjid.

INTRA-RELIGIOUS PLURALISM
Before divided into sects, Christianity generally profess “one holy catholic and apostolic church”. It remains so until now in Catholic, Orthodox Christian, Episcopalians, and most Protestant Christian denominations. Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox see each other as heterodox but still regard as Christian. Concerning Protestant, their view varies depend on Trinitarian in that Protestant.
Most fundamentalist Protestant Christian groups maintain that their churches is the only valid way to God and other churches are considered to be heretical, or even diabolic. This view is rejected by Neo-evangelical Protestant Christian Churches, regarding most Christianities as valid. They believe in unity of the Church.
In Islam there is no religious pluralism within different sects, for, there is no real difference between them.

*resumed from wikipedia free encyclopedia.

John Hick on Religious Pluralism: a Summary

2008-11-12T16:02:00.002+07:00

Exclusivism is natural inclination for those who live only in their own religion borders. But this tendency soon become criticized in finding other religions’ result of transforming human being from selfishness to divine awareness, moreover if values of various religions are regarded, both of which can be found in various religious traditions.
Having seen other religions contributions to the humanity, inclusivist have a tendency not to see other religious traditions to be less compared to his own. For illustration, a Buddhist may regard other religion as imperfect dharma. In the same way, Roman Catholic, while convinced that human salvation is entirely dependent on sacrifice of Christ, consider that all people can be saved by that sacrifice. We can summarize that inclusivism is a view that, while considering superiority of one’s own tradition, is commited not to underestimate others’ tradition

Although inclusivism is socially acceptable, but it is logically in problematic status. Religious pluralism tries to solve this by taking more radical position, that is, to consider other religions as the same soteriological way as one’s own. Each religions are considered to represent one consciousness of the divine. In religious texts, we find words to developed into inclusivist or pluralist understanding. For example, in New Testament we read that the Logos was “the light that lightens every man” (Jn. 1:9). And so is the case with Rumi’s statement which is, for many, considered to have pluralist significance. “The lamps are different but the light is the same; it comes from beyond”.
But so far, there is no single general agreement on how to define religious pluralism philosophically. This definition should be able to cover all phenomena in every religions and understand them as constituting one single divine reality.
One of the most promising manner, which can be found in every religions, is through distinction between God an sich and as humanly experienced. In religions can be found a common concept that can be represented by term the Real. In Arabic we know al-haqq; in Sanskrit sat; in English ultimate reality. In Hinduism, it is distinction between nirguna brahman (brahman beyond the scope of human concepts) and saguna brahman (brahman humanly experienced as personal deity). In Christianity, it is distinction between God in his eternal and God as known from within his creatured things. And so we find other religions.
From the modern point of view, first formulated by Immanuel Kant, we find that circumstance, in which we live, is abstracted by our mind through interpretative process before it comes to our awareness as concepts and ideas. And this can be utilized to read religious awareness which can be categorized into two groups; the Real as personal in theistic traditions and the Real as nonpersonal in nontheistic traditions.
But in religious history, there is no concept of God as abstract ultimate reality, instead it is always in particular concrete forms. Gods in religions are always understood by specific community in personal relationship and, therefore, historical. Yahveh as conceived by Jews cannot be regarded as the same as god in any other community. And so is the case with other religion.
In the seemingly nonpersonal gods as conceived, for example, by Hindus, there is concretization of that nonpersonal gods. They are experienced as universal transpersonal consciousness which give mean to one’s life.
The variety of religious experiences of the Real, as found in Hinduism and Buddhism, suggests that there is human contribution to those experiences. This can be proven by different meditation and scriptures read in every religion which result in different religious consciousness. So, Kantian thesis of interpretative process within human mind seems to be applicable to both personal modes of awareness of the Real and nonpersonal.
Another Kantian idea that seems to be applicable to the problem of the Real is the distinction between noumenon, which always means involvement of human interpretation, and phenomenon. There is no “pure” noumenon independent of human as knowing subject, because of the impossibility of that mode of knowing. The same is relevant to the problem of divine reality. The Real as it is cannot be experienced, for there is always interpretative involvement of human’s mind. As a result, we may assume that there is one divine noumenon, which can be explained, and different phenomena in religious traditions, each of which is constituting that one divine noumenon.
This pluralist interpretation is aimed to religiously describe the plurality of religions. For, if we use naturalistic approach to this plurality, we will arrive at conclusion of considering all religious phenomena as human illusion. To propose the divine noumenon is to defend religions in general by regarding them as manifestations and responses to the Real.
The most challenging disagreement to pluralist point of view comes from those who hold the exclusivist view of one’s own tradition. For pluralist view to be widely accepted, each person in one tradition must initiate to understand one’s tradition and modify one’s exclusivist view to be more universal and acceptable to all.

Unveiling the Truth: Sufism between Influences and Purity

2008-06-29T09:00:00.000+07:00

Islam is a din rendered into English as religion. But different perspective as to what religion is between Islam and Western civilization undoubtedly results in misunderstandings retained for centuries. It follows that those who are used to see things from Western understanding and viewpoint would consider Sufism as the alien part of Islam. From their viewpoint it is understandable to do so, for they lack the complete comprehension of teachings of Islam.
They work behind their distorted presuppositions held for centuries of hatred toward Islam. Although the situation now is growing better, there remain misunderstandings of several concepts formulated by the Sufis of old, since they are seen outwardly, i.e., not understood within Islamic worldview. To equal, for example, wahdatul wujud understood by Sufis, with pantheism known to Western civilization is one of the consequence following from such situation, where, in fact, both are of very different nature.
In this paper I will first examine mysticism generally understood in its wide context. Next, I will try to trace the origin of word Sufi. As it will be soon discovered that this word was current even in the pre-Islamic days. I will try to show that, in the case of Sufism, the mere similarity is not sufficient to support theories of influence. It will be also proven that Islamic teaching itself is already full of Sufism, so to speak, both pratical or theoritical. Thus, it does not make sense to relate the appearance of Sufism within Islam only with something external to it.

UNDERSTANDING MYSTICISM
To talk about tasawuf in wider context means to talk of special sort of mysticism that belongs to Islam or Islamic tradition. Mysticism is derived from mystic originating from Greek mustikos, from mustēs which means “initiated person”, from muein which means “close the eyes or lips”, and “initiate”. From the very original Greek meaning we can infer that mysticism is related with something beyond the senses, that is, not able to to be understood by average approaches. And it is quite surprising that the Greek original also signifies initiated person which later in the context of sufism is comparable to the necessity of the spiritual guide (sheikh).
The other origin closely related to mysticism is mystery which is also of Greek origin, that is, mustērion which means simply “a revealed secret”. This means that mustērion, from which word mystery originates, is not something incomprehensible at all; it is a secret yet able to be comprehended if revealed.
Another definition offered to explain mysticism is given by a leading author on mysticism Evelyn Underhill. She describes it as “the art of union with Reality”, and, thus the mystic is “a person who has attained that union in greater or less degree; or who aims at and believes in such attainment”. The idea of the limitless Reality is not a concern of rational understanding, since its many shortcomings to prevent the perfect knowledge. It is rather of feeling and consciousness, which have fuller ability to grasp it. But this description does not make the way to understand mysticism easy, since the goal to which all the ways lead cannot be easily apprehended by “any normal mode of perception”, as Schimmel expresses it. It can only properly comprehended by spiritual experience that depends neither to sensual nor rational methods.
Spiritual experience can only be attained by disciplines of self-purifying (takhalli/via purgativa) from all other than Him. Then it leads a mystic to higher state of beautifying his heart, self, and soul resulting in divine love and gnosis (tahalli/via illuminativa). Upon completing this, a mystic’s journey will be entirely different, for, in this stage, there is nothing other than Him (tajalli/unio mystica).
There are two types of mysticism; that of infinity and of personality. The first type speaks of the infinite being which is conceived as limitless, spaceless, and even not being; since it does not belong to the same category to which human being is classified. Th e purest form of this type can be found in the Upanishads and the system of Plotinus. This kind is often forbidden for many people as it seemed to trivialize human values and, therefore, resulting in monism and pantheism which constitute great threat to human being taken as a whole. The idea of continuing creation held by this mysticism does not seem reconcilable with creatio ex-nihilo doctrine.
In opposite to the the first type the mysticism of personality stresses on human personality as understood from the name. God in this mysticism is perceived as Creator, Lord, and Beloved whereas human being is creature, slave, and lover. Both types hardly become separated independently not connected in each purest form. The contrary is the most cases. The modern historian classify these two types as mystic and prophetic. Such classification is not proper with the case of Islam, as seen later.
With regarding to Islam there is less distinction between two approaches or rather both are integrated. This fact makes the clear grouping between the two seems to be difficult or even impossible without falling into traps which make both not be correctly understood. In Islam both are equally strong.
Some modern scholars try to explain the nature of mysticism. William James gives an explanation that mysticism can be described by four things. Firstly, that it is the state of mental perception (noetic) rather than discursive knowledge. It is like revelations of direct experience. Secondly, the ineffability of explanating such mental perception, since it is a feeling state which cannot be exactly explained by words. Thirdly, the transiency of that mental insight. But the effect of it somehow can still be recovered. Fourthly, its passivity, that is, the mystic’s being passive while acquiring that insight. Another attempt to identify the natures of mysticism is done by R. M. Bucke. He asserts that mysticism has seven characteristics; the subjective light, moral elevation, intellectual illumination, sense of immortality, loss of fear of death, loss of sense of sin, and suddeness. And although these aspects exist undeniably in most types of mysticism, yet these two attempts are not fully comprehensive to determine the whole elements of mysticism. Since there remains many aspects of it have not been explained in these two yet.

ON LEXICAL ORIGIN OF SUFI
With regard to Islam, tasawuf has been the generally accepted name for mysticism. However, some writers use tasawuf, which is derivative of sufi, as translation of English mysticism. This rendering, though loosely understandable, is not the correct one; for it is from Islamic Tradition that word tasawuf owes its existence, and hence should be grasped in Islamic context. Therefore, it is necessary to prevent historical and semantical meaning contained in word mysticism as understood in Western history when talking about Islamic mysticism, tasawuf, or, later in the early 19th century, sufism. The last has now become the common word in English-using literatures for denoting mysticism in Islam.
Scholars on Sufism, and so did the Sufi of old, have different opinions as to from what root this word originates. Some assert that it comes from safa which means purity, “the sufis was so named because the purity of their inmost ground and the cleanness of their traces”. Others say that it has its origin from al-saff al-awwal which means the first rank signifying that they are in the first rank before God. Others would say it is derived from ahl al-suffah, which originally signifies the people of the Bench, Prophet’s Companions living poverty life and always attached to spend their time in worshiping God.
It is worth noting that there is an attempt from European scholar to ascribe the origin of word sufi to Greek sophos relating with teosophist. But this, as supposed, can no longer be maintained, since it seems to be impossible philologically.
But of these origins, the most acceptable morphologically is that it is from suf, which means woolen garment. Although the last signifies only to the external aspect of sufism, it is common at the time when this term came to exist to refer to men by their outer appearance rather than their attributes and traits, just like al-Quran referring to the Companions of the Jesus Christ by al-hawariyyin alluding to their white garb rather than their virtues.
This does not necessarily mean to decrease spiritual significance of this word and to disregard other three words’ meaning, since:
“Those who relate them to the Bench and to wool express the outward aspect of their conditions: for they were people who had left this world, departed from their homes, fled from their compaions. They wandered about the land, mortifying the carnal desires, and making naked the body; they took of this world’s good only so much as is indispensable for covering the nakedness and allaying hunger.”
Furthermore, al-Kalabadhi clarifies that, although these words seem to be different, their meanings indicate the same. For, he adds, “If the term is taken from al-safa (purity) and al-safwah (tha choosen), then it would be safawiyah; if it is connected to al-saff (rank) or al-suffah (bench), it would be saffiyah or suffiyah; and it is possible that preceding of wawu over ya’ in the word sufiyah and its addition in words saffiyah and suffiyah is because of passing from mouth to mouth (tadawul al-alsun)”.
Abu Nasr al-Sarraj, one of the earliest writers on sufism, reports that the word sufi was common in the pre-Islamic days (ashr jahily), that is, by implication, already known in the Prophet’s life. To support his view on this matter he quotes from the History of Mecca by Muhammad bin Ishaq bin Yasar that there were times in Mecca in which everybody left and no one left there to honor the Ka’bah and in these times a Sufi used to come from another place to the Ka’bah in prescribed manner. Thus the term Sufi at that time had the similar significance as the word hanif who is one practicing the religion of Abraham.
If it is so, then why is it not prevalent in the days of Prophet and his Companions? Al-Sarraj argues that it is because the honor of being Prophet’s Companions is the highest honor that no body would ever think to call them other than their being so. In spite of that, their spirituality is of high rank to be the inspiration for next people.

INFLUENCES ON SUFISM
So far as influences toward sufism is concerned, there are several theories. E. H. Palmer considers that sufism is a developed form of primeval religion of the Aryan race. Sufism, thus, is merely considered as a sort Iranian development within Islamic spirituality. And so is the case with Thoulk who identifies the origin of sufism to Zoroastrian with the argument that many of Zoroastrians living in the northern Iran from which early Sufi leaders came and some of the Sufi path founder was of Zoroastrian origin. In spite of these arguments they argue with, we still cannot say that sufism is simply of Iranian sort of spirituality dressed in Arabic, since there were many sufi leaders who lived in Syria, Egypt, and other parts of Islamic world, even some of them are more influential.
Some are convinced that sufism is of Christian origin. This opinion is held even by seemingly moderate Western scholar on sufism, R. A. Nicholson. He writes: “We have seen that the woollen dress, from which the name 'Sufi' is derived, is of Christian origin: vows of silence, litanies (dhikr), and other ascetic practices may be traced to the same source”, and “It must also be allowed that the ascetic movement was inspired by Christian ideals, and contrasted sharply with the active and pleasure-loving spirit of Islam.” But this similarity by which Nicholson maintains his view is no longer valid if we read verses from al-Quran which lucidly elucidates that: “And nearest among them in love to the Believers wilt thou find those who say: ‘We are Christians’. because amongst these are men devoted to learning and men who have renounced the world, and they are not arrogant”, “And when they listen to the revelation received by the Messenger, thou wilt see their eyes overflowing with tears, for they recognize the truth; they pray: "Our Lord! we believe; write us down among the witnesses.” Besides, there is a number of Quranic Verses and Prophetic Traditions which command to live in this world while remembering its transience and forbid from fully absorbed in the worldly life.
Scholars, like Goldziher who is a Jew, are convinced that sufism has been influenced to the great extent by jewish teachings. One of the arguments they propose to establish their view is that many Jews who converted to Islam fabricated many sayings later known as israiliyyat. The other argument they employ to assure their opinion is that incarnation theory of sufism is similar to the antropomorphism tendency within Jew tradition. But, again, the mere similarity does not prove that there is influence. The so-called sufism theory is alien to the core teachings of true sufism, and therefore cannot show any influence toward it.
One more theory is given to trace the origin of sufism. It traces origin of sufism back to Indian Civilization, that is to say that elements of Hindu and Budha had been absorbed into sufism. They argue that annihilation (fana’) in sufi tradition is comparable to the concept of nirvana within Buddhism and Hinduism. And so is the thought of incarnation (hulul) and union (ittihad) ascribed to sufism with reincarnation of souls (tanasukh) of Indian belief. From these resemblances we cannot arbitrarily infer that sufism has been affected by Hinduism or Buddhism.
Another influence from which sufism is identified to be developed is neoplatonism. This so-called influence of neoplatonism is detected by the prominence of literary tradition, containing mystical ideas, translated into Syrian from Greek through which the doctrines of emanation, illumination, gnosis, and ecstasy were transmitted. In addition to his opinion about Christian origin of sufism, he assuredly writes that “Neoplatonism poured into Islam a large tincture of the same mystical element in which Christianity was already steeped”. That Greek thought had permeated some aspects of theosophical sufism is undeniable. However, it should be noticed that it does not necessarily mean that the so-called theosophist merely adopted Greek concepts without appropriating them into their own system of thought; and it is also possible, viewing the conceptual possibilities contained within al-Quran and Prophet’s Tradition, that they just borrow Greek terms to give an explanation of concepts already included in the Two Sources.

ISLAM AND SUFISM
For some, it sounds somewhat strange to question relationship between sufism and Islam. But it is incumbent upon us to clarify this issue, since there are many misunderstandings on sufism from our muslim brothers. Read, for example, Abdurrahman al-Wakil’s book entitled Hadzihi Hiya al-Sufiyyahin which he writes:
“It is an obligation for Sheikh to invite his followers back to Islam; believing in al-Quran and the Prophet’s Tradition; disbelieving the Sufis and their idolatrous legacy. And if their followers do not accept Allah swt as the only God, His book as the only guide, His messenger as the only model, then he must go to Allah swt. and leave this position and its idols; the curse of Allah is upon them”
First of all it is essential to state that sufism is an integral part of Islam. It is no more than an interiorization of Islam, as Schimmel rightly puts it, or practice of the shari’ah at the station of ihsan, as formulated by al-Attas. It is very easy to trace the Sufi’s thought and practices back to the Sources of Islam, that is, al-Quran and Hadith of the Prophet. And, once again, Schimmel correctly notes that “In fact, the quintessence of the long history of Sufism is to express anew, in different formulation, the overwhelming truth that ‘there is no deity but Allah’ and to realize that He alone can be the object of worship”. Keeping this in mind, we should be able to see the position of tasawuf within Islamic context. It is just like fiqh; while the latter is concerned with outer aspect of Islam, the former is concerned with the inner aspect of it. Both are, so to speak, dynamic. Denying one of them means rejecting half of Islam. As alluded to in al-Quran: “Eschew all sin, open or secret” , there are two kind of sins; open or outer sin and secret or inner sin. The first-mentioned is of fiqh matter, so is the latter of tasawuf matter.
As far as the measurement by which Sufis judge their insights, it is a fact that they draw theirs first and foremost from al-Quran and Prophet’s tradition. Both constitute guides par excellence for every Sufi. If the ma’rifah is the highest goal toward which a Sufi should walk, then al-Quran is the only means by which he can know Him and has formed the cornerstone for all mystical doctrines. Sufis also are also inspired by the Prophet through whom al-Quran was revealed. He is the first link in the spiritual chain of sufism.
Al-Attas guidedly states:
“Tasawuf is none other than the intensification of shari’ah upon one’s self; it is the expression of ihsan in the ‘abd; it is ‘ibadah fortified and enlightened by intellectual discernment leading to spiritual apprehension of realities; it is the practice of the shari’ah at the station of ihsan; it is established upon certainty as it is based upon hikmah and al-ilm al-ladunniyy—wisdom and spiritual knowledge which God grants to whomsoever He pleases of the elect among His servants. ... Its technical vocabulary is derived from its chief Source, the Holy Qur’an, and its interpretation and practice is grounded upon the Sunnah.”
The core concept upon which tasawuf is based is concept of covenant sealed between God and pre-existent human being, in which human being acknowledged Allah swt. as their Lord as referred to in al-Quran:
“When thy Lord drew forth from the Children of Adam--from their loins--their descendants, and made them testify concerning themselves, (saying): "Am I not your Lord (who cherishes and sustains you)?"--They said: "Yea! we do testify!" (This), lest ye should say on the Day of Judgment: "of this we were never mindful."
This, too, is related with the very essential purpose for which human being and jinn are created. Allah swt. says in al-Quran: “I have only created the Jinn and Man that they may serve Me” . Ibadah in its profoundest sense ultimately means ma’rifah (knowledge), so that His purpose of creation is for the creature to know Him, as He says in Holy Tradition (hadith qudsiyy): “I was a Hidden treasure, and I desired to be known, so I created creation that I might be known”. Such knowledge can only be obtain by the ways commanded in the shari’ah; both obligatory and supererogation. Of this, He sayas in Holy Tradition:
“My Servant ceases not to draw nigh unto Me by supererogatory worship until I love him; and when I love him I am his ear, so that he hears by Me, and his eye, so that he sees by Me, and his tongue, so that he speaks by Me, and his hand so that he takes by Me.”
Observing these facts, i.e., al-Quran and Hadith talking of these so-called theosophical concepts, we should be aware that the very essential of Two Sources is pregnant with such teachings, and thus avoid us from being unduly influenced by theories of influences conveyed by orientalists and their followers.
BIBLIOGRAPHY

Ali, Sayyid Nur bin Sayyid. al-Tasawuf al-Syar’i Alladzi Yajhaluhu Katsirun min Mudda’iihi wa Munataqidiih. Dar al-Kutub al-Ilmiyah: Beirut. 2000.
al-Attas, Syed Muhammad Naquib. Islam and Secularism. ISTAC: Kuala Lumpur. 1993.
-----, Prolegomena to the Metaphysics of Islam. ISTAC: Kuala Lumpur. 2001.
al-Baalbaki, Rohi. Al-Mawrid: A Modern Arabic-English Dictionary. Dar el-Ilm Lilmalayin: Beirut. 1995.
Delafield, John. Mysticism and Its Results Being an Inquiry into the Uses and Abuses of Secrecy. Edwards and Blushnell: New York. 1857.
Dictionary version 1.0.2. Oxford American Dictionary. Apple Computer Inc.
Field, Claud. Mystics and Saints of Islam. Francis Griffiths: London. 1910.
Hamiduddin, M. Early Sufis: Doctrine, in A History of Muslim Philosophy. Edited by M. M. Sharif. vol I. Adam Publisher: New Delhi. 2001.
al-Kalabadhi, Abu Bakr. al-Ta’arruf li Madhhab Ahl al-Tasawwuf. Dar al-Kutub al-Ilmiyah: Beirut. 1993.
Nicholson, Reynold A. The Mystics of Islam. Routledge Keegan Paul: London. 1914.
Qasim, Abdul Hakim Abdul Ghani. Al-Madhahib Al-Sufiyyah wa Madarisuha. Maktabah Madbuli: Cairo. 1999.
Schimmel, Annemarie. Mystical Dimension of Islam. Yoda Press: New Delhi.
al-Taftazani, Abu al-Wafa. Madkhal ila al-Tasawwuf al-Islami. Dar al-Thaqafah: Cairo. 1979.
Underhill, Evelyn. Pratical Mysticism: A Little Book for Normal People. E.P. Dutton and Company: New York. 1915.
al-Wakil, Abdurrahman. Hadzihi Hiya al-Sufiyyah. Dar al-Kutub al-Ilmiyah: Beirut. 1979.

On Origin and Earliest Usage of Term Sufi

2008-06-04T08:13:00.003+07:00

There have been many written on Sufism. And from its very nature, it is understandable to see this subject understood differently and, even, in contradictory manner. To write on this subject is, as Schimmel puts it, an almost impossible task. Therefore, this very short essay merely tries to search the origin of word sufism and to trace its earliest usage.
Of three words—tasawuf, Sufi, and Sufiyah—the seconds seem to exist earlier. This is, in my opinion, due to the fact that it is the most appropriate word from which we can derive the other. Scholars on Sufism have different opinions as to from what root this word originates. Some assert that it originates from الصفو which means purity, others that it originates from الصف which refers to their being's first rank before God, others says that this name comes from اهل الصفة which means the people of the bench referring to those pious poor living in Medina. Even some Western scholars strangely try to relate this word to the Greek sophos which, I argue, must not be known to the earliest Sufis. These so-called roots of tasawuf soon cannot be defended in morphological structure of Arabic. If we are to trace the origin of these opinions we can read, for example, al-Kalabadhi's al-Ta'arruf, one of the earliest sources on tasawuf, which mentions, in first chapter concerning Sufiyyah and why they are so named, some sayings of Sufis; each tries to convey Sufi according to their own preferences. And this does not necessarily mean that they were conveying the morphological root of Sufi.

There remains one word widely considered as morphological origin of Sufi which is, it is argued, the most appropriate words to be the root of word Sufi. This word is الصوف which means woolen garment worn originally by those living an ascetic life. Although the word الصوف only express the outward aspect of Sufi's life, but this very word originally relates strongly to those people of the bench who were:
“People who had left this world, departed from their homes, fled from their companions. They wandered about the land, mortifying the carnal desires, and making naked the body; they took of this world's good only so much as is indispensable for covering the nakedness and allaying hunger.”
The tendency to refer to men by their specific conventional garb rather than by specific attributes and traits is also evident in Holy Quran itself. After quoting from Holy Quran: “wa qal al-hawariyyun”, al-Sarraj says that Holy Quran emphasizes that the Companions of Jesus Christ were referred to by their white garb rather than their virtous traits.
So far as to when word Sufi dates back, there are many views. Considering the fact that the earliest sources of Sufism do not go beyond the fourth/tenth century, some scholars maintains that this word was only apparent after this century or, at best, second/eighth century. But, this word, though not as widely used as in the later centuries, was current in the pre-Islamic days. Abu Nasr al-Sarraj, quoting Ibn Ishaq's History of Mecca and others, insists that there was a period in the history of Mecca when everybody had gone away from Mecca so that nobody was left there to pay homage to the Ka'bah and to go round it. During these days a Sufi used to come from a distant place in order to go round the Ka'bah in the prescribed manner. If this story is true then it is evident that the word sufi was current in the pre-Islamic days, and was used for men of excellence and virtue.
In spite of these various opinions about its origin and earliest usage, Sufism, by spirit, was present at the time of revelation and then practiced by the Companions. Sufism is of spirit more than just a name or clothing a woolen garment.
References:
Ibn Taymiyah, Ahmad. Al-Sufiyyah wa al-Fuqara'. Jeddah: Dar al-Madani.
Kalabadhi, Abu Bakr Muhammad al-. Al-Ta'aruf li Madhhabi Ahl al-Tasawwuf. Beirut: Dar al-Kutub al- Ilmiyah. 1993.
Schimmel, Annemarie. Mystical Dimension of Islam. New Delhi: Yoda Press.
Sharif, M. M (ed). A History of Muslim Philosophy. Delhi: Adam Publishers. 2001.
Taftazani, Abu al-Wafa al-. Madkhal ila al-Tasawwuf al-Islami. Cairo: Dar al-Thaqafah. 1979.

What Parents Do Here

2008-06-04T07:48:00.000+07:00

In Indonesia, larger part of population lives in rural area. Consequently most of them live their life traditionally. Yet, it's undeniable that information technology has brought about big change in some aspect of their life.
As far as parent-and-children relationship is concerned, relatively, there are no dramatic differences. This we can divide into two extreme positions and from which then to draw some types of such relationship.
These two extremes are parents who are fully totalitarian in their relationship with their children and parents who are extremely liberal in their way conducting their relationship with them. Of course, we'll feel difficult to find such extreme kinds.
Typically, traditional family- like such of Javanese and Madurese-will demand from their young people to respect everyone older then them, with special emphasize on someone who births you. This in itself is good and, I think, no parent would deny that they hope their children to respect them. And this is very natural inclination of human being. Everyone who has good character will do it.
This had happened for long time and, to some extent, is still happening these days. To respect our parents, for religious people, is to obey one of the most highlighted commands in the Scripture, regardless of what our faith may be, I'm sure that every religion will stress this matter. Even, when you have no religious alliance, you will naturally find-or more precisely feel-that somehow to respect your parents is your obligation. It is our natural tendency to feel it, sown by God out of His bounty for the believer or misunderstably existed within us for the atheist.

But then, when their children grow up and start to have ability to understand this world sometime differently from their parents' way of thinking, and then to choose their own choices, something will happen; conflict, either openly or secretly.
And this, it seems to me so, will occur more often in Indonesian traditional society which there is almost no limitation for information coming from 'outside'. There will be clash of cultures, that is, between traditional culture and modern culture brought by information technology. However, this is not the case in many traditional families, moreover in families living in city, town, or suburb. This is because, I think, they are less traditional. By traditional families I mean those who bear their traditional norms as unchangeable things and no one should try to change, moreover their children. The more inclined they are to their tradition, the more traditional they are.
For families living in urban area to give more tolerance to their children is considerably easy. This might be due to openness of information they and their children can gain. For, someone who knows more will become more tolerance, this at least in many cases. This freedom is a wise to choose if accompanied with consultative function from parents.
On the contrary, freedom to choose is somewhat luxurious stuff for many children originating from rural and traditional family. For them, in many cases, it's not easy to make their own decisions. In most instances, they can't decide many things relating to theirselves. Their parents do it all, for their good, they would say. However for some people to decide by their selves makes them more comfort. They don't have to always rely on their parents to decide something and this, in effect, will get them more prepared in facing future. Nevertheless we can hardly find parents from traditional family-in the sense we mention above-to give their children more freedom. This attitude is because parents traditionally intuitively want to see their children happy but, sadly, from their version of happiness. They almost won't, in some cases, even listen to their children what happiness for them is. It’s all about monologue, while the dialog is always the best. The other reason might be that children-until they get married-in traditional family is more dependent economically to their parents resulting in other dependences. That's why children being independent from their parents have freer choice.
Actually, this time in which informations flood us and it's seemingly impossible to control and sort them for our children, it seems the best for parents to let their children make their own choice while listening, talking each other and advising. This will make them more responsible and independent. Added to this, if they make choices they need, they will be mentally healthier and don't need to find out their identity along their life. For, as Candy Natazia said, the choices you made in life define who you are and what you stand for.

Intercultural Marriage

2007-12-31T06:29:00.000+07:00

The title may resemble some discourse years ago on inter religion marriage. Many scholars have examined, discussed and had done some works on the latter, especially in Islamic perspective, but none of them talking of intercultural marriage.

However, current writing is in no way a serious examination on this topic. Therefore, do not look up for something fully academic in it  It may merely contain my own accounts on this.

In many essays today on intercultural marriage, it is often understood as a marriage held by two persons from completely different cultural background. This is not what I am concerning about in this, but in narrower sense of the phrase, that is, marriage between two with different cultural backgrounds. In Indonesian context, it is like between Javanese and Manadonese, which are geographically and culturally distant. Or in another case, like that between aristocratic (whatever it might mean) family and not. Tough the latter become rarer to happen today, but in some families, mainly in traditional family, it sometime becomes serious consideration to think.

I have no idea about the exact definition of marriage. But we may understand it as “unifying of two persons agreeing to live together until the end of their life”; and we must add “in accordance with their official religion or other institution regarded as the same”. It sounds like a simple thing. But, in fact, it is not even it is more complicated than that.
In traditional society, a marriage means not only unifying of two persons, but more intensely, as the case in many traditional societies in Indonesia, of two families, or even more between of two tribes.

As it can be predicted, unifying of two personalities, however different they might be, easier and simpler than that of two families, and two clans. For, a simplest family order must consist of, at least, three persons, two parents and one son or daughter. This means a more difficult reconciliation of diverse concern from those people involving in that unifying.

But I am sure with conviction from the couple wanting to get married; it becomes easy to overcome problems they might face. Therefore, before they go so far, they must first have agreement on how they should go through this long journey of life. And in traditional society they need to consider their family, since in that kind of society we will interact more with our family.

There are many barriers to occur before and during such marriage. These could be language barrier; differences in values; religious conflicts; sex role expectations; economic adjustments; fear of abandonment by family, friends, spouse; political issues; and legal complications.

To overcome these, the spouse should learn about one another's cultures; communicate well in at least one language; be open and honest with their families; accept that cultural roots go deep and that people don't change easily or quickly; Focus on the positives.

Greek Philosophy: Origin of Philosophy or Stolen Legacy

2007-11-08T22:59:00.001+07:00

INTRODUCTION

It is commonly accepted that Greek philosophy is the first attempt in human history to think of things philosophically, however blurry this word means. Is there something born out from what is called Greek Miracle and what had distinguished them from other people? In this paper we try to re-examine the originality of Greek philosophy. To ask whether its originality was based on their distinguished talent so they could innovate something new altogether or they merely continue what they inherited from civilizations before them or even worse they stole knowledge without acknowledging those to whom they was deeply indebted.

In first chapter we seek to describe pre-philosophical thought as known—or more exactly written—by Western historians, historical and sociological background around Greek environment in brief, and some thinkers generally considered as earliest philosophers. In the second chapter, we attempt to ask the originality of Greek philosophy in which there are—at least—two perspectives, i.e., conservative and revisionist. We try to use both two views contradictive each other, first of which says that the Greek philosophy is the origin of philosophical thinking and that it occurred because their special talent not being indebted to any other civilization.
The second viewpoint is critical to this conventional opinion. One of which says that Greek philosophy is no more than continuation from human thought prior to them, and even more dramatic some revisionist says that Greek had stolen philosophy from ancient Egypt without admitting their indebtedness to them, then there was nothing to be regarded as Greek philosophy other than Stolen Egyptian Philosophy.
We do hope that this paper will be useful and constructive, especially not to idolize Greek philosophers—and thus Western—as the only models of intellectual greatness without considering contributions of other civilizations. Since, we know that almost every discussion of philosophy, in IAIN particularly, starts with history of Greek philosophy while ironically forgetting Islamic philosophical discourses.
Citing sources from the internet is unavoidable in this paper, for we know that satisfying sources for pre-philosophical and early Greek philosophy are hardly found in our library. And some sources are cited from the book excerpted from the internet.

THE BEGINNING OF GREEK PHILOSOPHY

Human ‘thought’ in pre-philosophical can be characterized from what would then come as “mythopoeic,” “mythopoetic,” or “mythic” thought. “Mythopoeic” means “making” (poieîn, from which the word “poet” is derived) “myth”. It differs from philosophical thinking in, at least, five characteristics. First, myths are stories about person, where they may be gods, heroes, or ordinary persons. Things—including natural events—were associated with persons whether they be gods or not. In philosophical thought, so to speak, there was change in way of explanation of, for instance, natural disaster. Thales explained that earthquakes are just when a wave in the cosmic ocean rocks the earth. This explanation eliminated the actions or intentions of the gods. But this does not mean a complete departure from thought of gods’ role even in the so-called philosophical age. Thales, to give an example, was to be said that everything is full of gods.
Secondly, myths possible multiplicity of explanation which are not logically exclusive (can contradict each other) and are often humorous. The theories of the earliest Greeks philosophers, especially those about whom we know the most, like Anaximander and Heraclites, are systematic and internally coherent. Thirdly, mythic traditions are conservative; they hardly change their view and do not accept drastic divergence. On the contrary, philosophical thought, notably Greek philosophy as recorded in Western philosophical history, allow rapid and essential differences. Thales’ view on water had been superseded by several theories only within 80 years. Fourthly, myths are self-justifying. There was no other explanation for creativity of poets, seers, and prophets than inspiration of the gods. Consequently myths are not argumentative. On the other hand, Parmenides offers substantive arguments for his views written in his The Way of Truth. Fifthly, myths are morally ambivalent. The gods and heroes in mythical stories do not always do what is admirable and thus their stories do not teach moral lessons, as to be found in the story of Achilles. As reaction to this moral ambivalence, Xenophanes criticizes the poets for ascribing shameful acts to the gods.

There were many civilizations known to history before Greek. One of the most ancient civilizations known is Egypt civilization. It is said that Egyptian people has recognized art of writing for about 4000 B.C. It also invented what is known afterward as the Mysteries, a very complex religious system, which later some identify it as the genuine origin of Greek philosophy, as to be discussed in next part of this paper. The other big civilization is Babylonia. The oldest law code known to this day is that of Hammurabi, king of Babylon, about 2100 B.C. The others are Phoenician and Lydia from whom Greek had learned their alphabet and using of money. These civilizations around Greek, in one and another way, had influenced Greek civilization and thus their so-called philosophy—to use revisionist’s term.

The environment in which Greek philosophy is said to be born had hot dry summers and cool rainy winters, and hence Greece could not possibly be as agriculturally productive as Egypt or Mesopotamia. Agriculture is the vital aspect in traditional livelihood. To have a good agricultural environment means to be wealth nation. However, at that time Cities like Miletus and Athens were wealthy. They achieve it with other mean; trade. This puts Greek in an open dialogue with other civilization to do what we may call it now as cultural exchange. Trade and wealthy are not a complete explanation as to why did philosophy emerge in cities like Athens and Miletus, for Phoenician preceded Greek in trade and Egypt and Babylon are wealthy as well. The added reason for that as proposed by Kelley Rose is the fall of kingship institution in cities such as Athens and Miletus. In 510 B.C. Cleisthenes led Athens into essentially pure democracy.

SOME EARLY GREEK THINKERS

In this part we would like to sketch three early philosophers, who, we consider, can represent others and have important role in early development of philosophy. The first to be called as philosopher is Thales of Miletus. He lived between ca. 624-546 B.C. He is known so because his attempt in explanation events happening to this world naturalistically, as noted earlier. His famous dictum is that all things originate from water. Many philosophers followed Thales's lead in searching for explanations in nature rather than in the supernatural; others returned to supernatural explanations, but couched them in the language of philosophy rather than myth or religion. He learned from Babylon and Egypt. He had predicted sun eclipse occurring in 585 B.C., as Herodotus cites. He was said to have been of Phoenician ancestry.

The other important philosopher is Pythagoras. According to Diogenes Laertius, “Pythagoras was the first person who invented the term philosophy, and called himself a philosopher”. He was born in Samos island in ca. 580 B.C. and died in 500 B.C. According to Aristotle and others' accounts, some ancients believed that he had the ability to travel through space and time, and to communicate with animals and plants. He is best known for the Pythagorean Theorem which bears his name. He is often revered as a great mathematician. However, he is also known as the founder of religious movement, called Pythagoreanism.

The philosopher who is considered to be the turning point in development of Greek thought is Parmenides. He was born in Elea, Hellenic city on the southern coast of Italy, in ca. 510 B.C. and died in ca. 450 B.C. He was remembered for his two major innovations; dialectics and metaphysics. To the Greeks, the first word simply meant logical argumentation. It ended the domination of mythical thought within Greek philosophical thinkers. The second word did not have the same meaning as it has now, it is rather to be understood as “After the Physics” relating Aristotle’s book of physics (On the Heavens, On the Soul, The Parts of Animals, etc). Therefore, in this context metaphysics must be understood as whatever contained in Aristotle’s Metaphysics. It is more appropriate in modern context to alter word metaphysics, in Parmenides thought, with ontology, i.e., the theory of what is real, since he talked being qua being. These two innovations are recorded in his only work remaining to this day the Way of Truth.

ORIGIN OF GREEK PHILOSOPHY

Bertrand Russell, who is considered as one of authoritative author so far as Western Philosophy is concerned, starts first chapter of his History of Western Philosophy by noting that nothing is the most astonishing and unexplainable other than the emergence of Greek philosophy. He, while not denying existence of other civilizations, argues that it was the Greek who arrange the legacy of those civilizations in a ‘perfect’ manner.
Such notion is common to the Western historians writing history of philosophy. They emphasize the Greek internal capacity to introduce something that radically changes the history of humanity. Like Julian Marias notes that “This new perspective emerged in Greece for the first time in history, and since then appear something totally new in the world; something that had produced philosophy”. Some scholars call this viewpoint as Eurocentric or even Hellenocentric. The other scholar who holds this opinion is Frederick Coplestone. He is convinced that Greek has no idea about other civilization, say Egypt or Babylon. Greek philosophy originally comes from their extraordinary intelligence, stressing their internal superiority.
This view impacts widely on scholarship and discourses on philosophy—IAIN is not an exception—and consequently reveals the superiority of Western people. In many writings of history of philosophy, Greek philosophy is considered as the first philosophy, denying the fact it is only a continuation of human thought throughout history. And in the IAIN case it is very strange to see many discussions on philosophy talking much about Western philosophy while disregarding Islamic philosophy. They simply follow western syllabus which judges golden era of Islamic philosophy as dark ages.

REVISIONIST VIEWPOINT ON EARLY GREEK PHILOSOPHY

In tracing the origin of philosophy, some scholars, in various disciplines, criticize the mainstream tendency to highly stress the internal factors within Greek civilization. Some have read this tendency as a consequence from European imperialism. Scholars regarded as revisionist use many approaches to prove that Hellenic ability is not the only reason for emergence of the so-called Greek philosophy. Instead, to describe what has mistakenly been considered as Euro-Greek legacy, they generally propose a new explanation; intercontinental influences. This in general suggests that Greek is just one chain of human thought history among other civilizations.
Here are some of their arguments and approaches excerpted from ISLAMIA, Islamic quarterly journal:
1. Arguments based on ancient sources. George G. M James in his outstanding book Stolen Legacy: Greek Philosophy is stolen Egyptian Philosophy summarizes his view in opening statement of his book. He writes: “The term Greek philosophy, to begin with, is a misnomer, for there is no such philosophy in existence.” By analyzing ancient Greek texts, such as Phaedo and Timaeus of Plato, Life of Eminent Philosophers of Diogenes Laertius, and Histories of Herodotus, he suggests that Greek philosopher; Thales, Pythagoras, Socrates, Plato—to name some—had learned or borrowed thought from Egyptian priest. And then they re-write what they learned from Egypt without citing sources from which they got. It can also be proved by examining Egyptian ancient inscriptions. They show that some ancient Egypt believes are that water is origin of everything; that nature creation was planned within Ptah’s (highest god in Egypt belief) reason; that basic elements of nature are fire, water, earth, and air; and so on. There is clear conceptual affinity between Egyptian believes and theories to come in Greek philosophy age.
2. Archeological and socio-intellectual history arguments. Martin Bernal shows that there was firm link culturally and intellectually between Semite (Jews), Greek, and Egypt civilizations. This connection gave birth to parallels and similarities between those. “No man ever lives in a social vacuum”, George Sarton say in his Ancient Science and Modern Civilization. Furthermore, Bernal is successful to prove that Greek had much been influenced by Phoenicia and Egypt who had occupied Greece ca. 1500 B.C. This explanation, called Ancient Model, was broadly accepted in Europe academically and has no internal weakness scientifically. But it is then replaced by Aryan Model, in mid-nineteenth century during which European countries started colonizing non-European countries, which instead proposes the superiority of Greco-based-Euro civilization.
3. Historical arguments. In comparative study of history of world philosophy, it is found that rationalism in other ancient civilization, like Egypt, Babylon, India, and China, preceded far before the time of Greek. In this context it is not surprising to find that what Heraclites and Ephesus said, that “Wisdom is to know thought that determine position of all things”, had been written in Memphis theology thousand years before Heraclites born. Benjamin Schwartz writes “Comparative world history approach will show that, in first millennium B.C., the emergence of creative groups, who think deeply and critically to their own civilizations…like many historical changes, there is no absolute beginning for these progress”.

CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS

It is no longer useful to refer Greek philosophy as the first and origin of philosophy, for:
1. Many people, who are conventionally regarded as earliest Greek philosopher, have been proven to be taught, or at least get lessons from ‘outsider’, notably Egypt civilization.
2. The emphasis to the unique genius of the Greeks and other internal factors sounds like racism more than as result of scientific study, since it highlights the superiority of Aryan race, as noted in point two.
3. If we use the first meaning of philosophy, which entails what is today understood as science, we should not refer only to the Greek as the first to invent that, because it has been proven that long before them, other civilizations had the same or even more sophisticated system.
4. If we understand philosophy as understood today, that is to think of things rationally, systematically, and abstractly, we would refer more appropriately to ancient civilizations like Egypt, Babylon, India, and China, since they preceded Greek and they already had systematic thought far before Greek did.
5. It is intellectually inevitable to assume that all human thought, including that of Greek, is a continuation of human thinking from all human civilization, it does not belong exclusively to one civilization; the West or Greek. All has its role in human history.

REFERENCES AND FURTHER READINGS:

The list below is references cited in this paper directly or through other references. However, it is strongly recommended to read books mainly relating with revisionist viewpoint.
Bernal, Martin. Black Athena: the Afro-Asiatic Roots of Classical Civilization. 1987. (Trenton, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press).
Coplestone, Frederick. A History of Philosophy. 1946. (London: Search Press).
Huffman, Carl. Pythagoras (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy), from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pythagoras.
James, George G. M. Stolen Legacy: Greek Philosophy is Stolen Egyptian Philosophy. 1992. (Trenton, New Jersey: Africa World Press).
Karam, Yusuf. Tarikh Al-Falsafah Al-Yunaniyah, Fifth Print. 1970. (Cairo: Mathba’ah Lajnah al-Ta’lif wa al-Tarjamah wa al-Nashr).
Marias, Julian. History of Philosophy. 1967. (New York: Dover Publications).
Rose, Kelley L. 2007. Parmenides of Elea and the Way of Truth, (Online), http://www.friesian.com/greek.htm and http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parmenides.
Rose, Kelly L. 2007. The Origin of Philosophy: The Attributes of Mythic/Mythopoeic Thought, (Online), http://www.friesian.com/greek.htm.
Rose, Kelly L. 2007. The Origin of Philosophy: Why the Greeks?, (Online), http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Introduction_to_Philosophy:Origins_of _Philosophy.
Russell, Bertrand. Sejarah Filsafat Barat dan Kaitannya dengan Kondisi Sosio-Politik dari Zaman Kuno Hingga Sekarang. Trans. Sigit Jatmiko, et, all. Second Print. 2004 (Jogjakarta: PUSTAKA PELAJAR).
Sarton, George. Ancient Science and Modern Civilization. 1959. (New York: Harper Torchbook).
Schwartz, Benjamin. the World of Thought in Ancient China. 1985. (Cambridge, New Jersey: Harvard University Press).
Setia, Adi. 2006. Melacak Asal Usul Filsafat dan Sains Yunani. ISLAMIA. Volume III, Number 1.

ENDNOTES:

Kelley L. Rose in http://www.friesian.com/greek.htm
Ibid.
Bertrand Russell, Sejarah Filsafat Barat, trans. by Sigit Jatmiko et. all., p. 33.
Kelley L. Rose, op. cit.
Bertrand Russell, op. cit, p. 4.
George James, Stolen Legacy: Greek Philosophy is Stolen Egyptian Philosophy, p.1.
Kelley L. Rose, op. cit.
Kelley L. Rose, ibid.
Yusuf Karam, Tarikh al-Falsafah al-Yunaniyah, pp. 12-4 and Kelley L. Rose, op. cit., http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Introduction_to_Philosophy:Origins_of_Philosophy
Diogenes Laertius, Vitae Philosophorum VIII (Lives of Eminent Philosophers), c. 200 AD, which in turn reference the lost work Successions of Philosophers by Alexander Polyhistor) — Pythagoras, Translation by C.D. Yonge, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pythagoras
Carl Huffman, Pythagoras (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy), from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pythagoras
Kelley L. Ross Parmenides of Elea and the Way of Truth in http://www.friesian.com/greek.htm and http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parmenides.
Bertrand Russell, op. cit , p. 3
In his “History of Philosophy”, ms. 4.
Frederick Coplestone, a History of Philosophy, I/11.
ISLAMIA, Islamic quarterly journal, pp. 105-15
From George James’ book review by Femi Akomolafe in http://yeyeolade.wordpress.com/2007/09/17/the-greeks-stoled-greek-philosophy-from-black-egypt/
In his book Black Athena: the Afro-Asiatic Roots of Classical Civilization.
P. 4.
In his book the World of Thought in Ancient China, pp. 2-3.

A Brief Exposition of Sunna Position toward Al-Quran

2007-10-29T10:54:00.000+07:00

As we know some scholars hold that Prophet’s Tradition is in the second status under al-Quran regarding with Islamic law. This can be accepted so far as theological position is concerned in the sense that Al-Quran has higher position from theologian (mutakallimun) viewpoint—as Shathibi describes. But, in practice, to deduce law from both is inevitable. Both are inseparable in the domain of law.

Traditionally, it is widely understood that Muslim scholars have different opinion about this matter, i.e. the position of Prophet’s tradition in deducing laws. Some of them are said to have opinion that Sunna is “secondary” compared to al-Quran. Still, we should to know what they mean by this secondary. We can take an example from an eminent scholar of Granada, al-Shathibi, who argues in his book that Sunna is in second position after Al-Quran. He proved this with several arguments. The first is that while Al-Quran is wholly and particularly definitive (maqthu’ jumlatan wa tafshilan), Sunna has no such certainty as Al-Quran does. It is definite in general not in particulars (maqthu’ jumlatan la tafshilan). Secondly, Sunna is either explanation to what is contain in Al-Quran or addendum to it. In first case Sunna has to be considered in second place. For, if what is explained is gone, the explanation would be gone not vice versa. In the second, where Sunna does not explain Al-Quran, Sunna should not be taken into account unless we do not find answer within Al-Quran. The other arguments Shathibi used are derived from Sunna itself, like hadith reported from Mu’adz when he was asked by the Prophet, “With what will you judge?”, “With Al-Quran” he replied, “If you do not find?” the Prophet asked for second time, “With the Tradition of the Prophet of Allah”, he replied, “If you do not find?” the Prophet asked, “I will strive my opinion”. But Shathibi’s viewpoint about Sunna regarding, especially, laws does not mean that, as he then explained , we abandon it if we already have an answer within Al-Quran. On the contrary we remain use it as one of unavoidable sources in deriving laws—and understanding Islam generally.
The other opinion about Sunna’s position with Al-Quran says that Sunna as long as law is concerned is the same as Al-Quran in the sense that we have to refer to both in deducing laws. We cannot deny the role of Sunna together with Al-Quran.
I argue, based on these, that there exists no intrinsic difference between scholars. In fact, either they talk Sunna as secondary in theological perspective or if they put it in juridical matter, they merely put Sunna secondary theoretically in the sense they first refer to Al-Quran and then to Sunna, but both remain inevitable in inferring laws. Essentially, they hold the same idea that Prophet’s Tradition has essential role in deriving laws. waLlahu a’lam.

Some Intellectual Positions and Roads Ahead

2007-10-05T22:57:00.000+07:00

Several years ago we heard shocking incident in Bandung where some students openly do some acts to be considered as insulting religion, particularly Islam. For some, it is ironic to see such acts happen in UIN (formerly IAIN) Bandung in which students are hoped to learn more and in-depth about religion. It happened to new students in campus introducing and study orientation (OSPEK). The old students, the committee of the program, demonstrated things which may be regarded as violating Islam. Some of them said “Welcome to the free-God campus”, other said “Let’s recite together ‘anjinghu akbar’” which to them it was an expression of free-speech, though, even for average Muslim, it sounds like trivializing sacred symbols of Islam. It is not interesting to talk about something in past, but it is widely perceived within society, at least for some, that IAIN is no longer a representative institution to learn Islam in Indonesia. Several books have been written concerning this very fact, to remind society of, to say, dangerousness of inappropriate using of freedom in understanding Islam.

In IAIN Surabaya we have nothing with what happened in Bandung. But to some extent, several cases do happen. If we go to any IAIN (or UIN), we will find the same pattern of thought. We see in Jakarta, Jogjakarta, and Surabaya—to name some axis—domination of, say, “liberal” or “rationalist” reformism—to use Tariq’s mapping of trends of thought.[1] I would like to use this typology used by Tariq in his book Western Muslim and the Future of Islam to read phenomenon in IAIN particularly in Surabaya.
According to him, there exist, at least, six tendencies within Muslim world today relating with how to read the Two Sources. It implies that what we are talking about is relating to those who remain concerned to involve the Sources in their way of thinking. It has nothing with people who deliberately put aside the role of Al-Quran and Prophet’s tradition in their thought.
Here are those tendencies in turn. The first of these is scholastic traditionalism. This bears the restricted understanding of Islamic scriptural Texts. People who uphold this tendency read the Texts by the mean of classical Muslim scholars. The extent to which to interpret the Text is very limited and, therefore, not enabling further elaboration. Even, they do not dare to read books written by classical Ulama but in literal way. For many of them, Islam is recognized by religious practices more to which they emphasize their concern. In Indonesia we may find this trend in some Pesantrens which insist on maintaining the old-tradition.
The second trend is salafi literalism. Apparently it seems to be the same with scholastic traditionalism, for they too give emphasis to religious practices. But while the first read the Texts in mediated way, they reject this kind of reading and stress on reading the Texts immediately and, as the name implies, literally. The word salafi refers to the first generations, as mentioned in Prophet’s tradition[2]. It is found in Wahabism in Saudi Arabia and its affiliates around the globe. These two emphasize more on religious practices and tend, with rare exception, to forget the social plane. In the West they are marked by alienation from the society to protect Muslims from Western cultural influences.
The third is political literalist salafism. As the name expresses, it has similarity with the former in the method of reading the Texts. However they differ in their stressing on social and political activities. Their literal reading of the Texts and their inclination to interpret the Text in political connotation place those in difficult situation where they have to face the reality, which is opposite to their ideal, while remain faithful to their literal reading. It gives birth to radical and revolutionary activism against all they consider violating to their values. Typically the goal of this movement is to establish what they call Islamic state; the caliphate. The representative of this movement can be found in secular circumstances, such as in Europe, as well as in religious one, such as in Indonesia. One of which popular example is Hizb al-Tahrir.
The next is Sufism which gives emphasis to spiritual reading of the Sources. They, to me, rather represent the practical aspect of Muslim community. But, to the extent that they have different behavior toward the Texts, it is possible to consider them as one of the approaches by which Muslims think of their scriptural Texts.
The following trend is salafi reformism. They are attached to the first generation as well, but they differ from ‘other salafism’ in contextualized reading to the Texts. Although the Texts remain inevitable for them, they avoid strictly literal interpretation of the Texts and, furthermore, try to read it in the light of context in which they live. Taking example from the Prophet, they also concern more with social issues within Muslim community, not forgetting religious matters—in the sense understood in the West.
The last is “liberal” or “rationalist”[3] reformism. In various degrees, they limit the function of the Texts which at most they reduce them into mere spiritual and ethical matter. It is also valid to call this way of thinking as secular, since, like showed by some scholars, it originates from Western experience of secularism. Within Muslim society, they suggest that the Texts can only be recognized as long as ethical norms are concerned, or at best they consider them merely as inspiration to derive laws relating with social affair. In the matter of daily life, i.e. cases connecting with humanity, they, in different degrees, disregard the Texts, elevating the role of reason over them. Most of them are in opposition to any utterances, actions or even clothing they consider identical to exclusivism and fundamentalism. Sometimes they judge such aprioristically as irrational seclusion.
In the light of this typology, we find the same trends in IAIN. Nevertheless, there is one dominant thought that is the last, almost in major IAINs (or UINs). It is noteworthy to recall this fact, since IAIN foremost is aimed to be centre for Islamic studies at high education level. Many lecturers say that, in IAIN, all Islamic schools of thought should be treated equally. But the fact that almost nothing of Islamic schools—to say the least—are studied deeply and comprehensively and that thought resulted from the West dominates make us have to think more deeply. It is not the question of being fundamentalist, but rather of intellectual balance and, for some, of identity.
On the other hand, the so-called Western thought is widespread consequently. This statement should not be read politically; one dominates other, but intellectually. Not only is it not desirable to reject any of Western stuffs blindly, but it is a matter of being more fair to the society we live in and, in academic sphere, to offer more various discourses both from West and East; Islam and secular, Left and Right—to say so. It is important to underline this, for, here, in IAIN Surabaya, as I feel, there is too hegemonic discourse, while other discourses are marginalized and cannot compete fairly intellectually. The fact becomes like what G. W Bush said when declaring war against terrorism “Either you are with us or with terrorist”.[4]
To build a healthier intellectual sphere, we need to free any discourses, to use more diverse reading ranging from Left to Right, and more important not to discriminate any of these readings. To make an example, here, we hardly find discourses offered by majority, and indeed, many lecturers, which is not identical to liberal. There is no room for other thought that is opposed to it, or if any it is very limited to those who hold it, no common ideology but liberalism and its descendants. We need to be more open, more pluralist, and more tolerant. Moreover if we recall that we are Muslims—whatever it implies for you. We must have differences, but with an open dialogue we can acquire better understanding. “Acknowledged differences may create mutual respect, but hazy misunderstandings bring forth nothing but prejudice and rejection”[5], said Tariq Ramadan. We need to get closer each other for the future of humanity. We hope together next we will be able to see a discussion involving leftist, salafist, liberalist, fundamentalist, atheist, and traditionalist where all are able and will to respect others no matter how sharp divergences they have.

endnotes:

1.Tariq Ramadan, Western Muslims and the Future of Islam, pp. 23-30.
2.See, for instance, Al-Bukhari. Al-Jami’ Al-Shahih, XI/481.
3.These labels should not be understood that other trends have no liberal or rational tendency.
4.In this context we can paraphrase this sentence to: “Either you become liberal or you will be marginalized from campus intellectually and socially”. This, of course, is to say the least.
5.Islam, the West and the Challenges of Modernity, pp. 3.

Secularized Muslim

2007-09-13T12:19:00.000+07:00

Secular, which can be described briefly as a worldview that emphasizes the meaning of life on a particular time or period in the world viewed as a historical process, has influenced many Muslims, in their way of wearing, judging, believing, and thinking. And because of their influential positions in Muslim society, as scholars and intellectuals, they become consciously or not disseminators of unnecessary confusion and ignorance spread by Western civilisation.

The process of making secular is called secularization. This contains three things: disenchantment of nature, desacralisation of politics, and the deconsecration of values. By first, secularist mean the freeing of nature from its religious overtones, separating it from God, so that man may no longer regard nature as a divine entity, which allows him to act freely upon nature according to his needs and plans. By the last they mean the rendering relative all cultural creations and every value system including religion and worldviews having ultimate and final significance, so that the future is open to change, and man is free to create and immerse himself in the revolutionary process.
With secularized Muslim, I refer to those who has been influenced by Western viewpoints and civilisation, who choose to deny Islam’s values and behave as if they have nothing with Islam in spite of their identity of Muslim. However it is still debatable to define precisely who they are and their position among Muslims.

Source: Al-Attas’s books
Written in my first year in campus

Islamization of Knowledge

2007-09-13T12:14:00.000+07:00

OSPEK

2007-09-08T16:21:00.000+07:00

These last three days my sister joins OSPEK (campus introducing and study orientation) for new students in IAIN Surabaya. It is when they are introduced to new environment different from what they have in intermediate school, namely to a more free educational atmosphere. In this new environment they’re free from many things they must do before.

Basically it is intended to make a campus life more familiar to them. But then the way the committees carry out makes some of its basic aim unclear, and in some ways against the core aim of it. What makes me write is while IAIN is a so-called Islamic educational institution there are some things possibly considered by some as ‘deviations’ from what it should be.

Last year when I was joining OSPEK, I experience many new things, some of which to the some extent are surprised. There was a presentation from a speaker spending time up to when afternoon prayer time will soon end. For most of us, new students at that time, it makes us irritated since IAIN is an Islamic institution.

Although it is not as terrible as what happened in IAIN Bandung years ago, when in OSPEK some of the committee did something considered insulting some vital Islamic symbols, there remain some actions not reflecting Islamic values, practice, and spirituality, such as when in gathering to eat the committee deliberately decide to make man and woman eating face to face, which by some of students is considered as embarrassing. Maybe it sounds like a fundamentalist voice, but what I want to say here is about freedom.

If one have a conviction, say, for instance, to make distance between man and woman—which for some Muslim it is important value to fulfill—but he/she is not able to do in such situation, what do you think should he/she do? Should he/she become stranger in his/her location. I don’t think so. I believe it’s going to be better if one keep participating in one’s daily life while continue to hold what one believe in, in this case, to make distance.

It’s a matter a choice I think. If one chooses to do whatever he thinks it’s better for him, no one is to forbid him, for everybody has his own choice. However when you have no room for choices you’d better do things you consider nearer to your ideal, like what’s happening in OSPEK and, to some degree, remains in day-to-day campus life where in some places a majority oppresses to make its value accepted.

It become more unacceptable in IAIN for it claims to be an Islamic institution but somehow, in some aspects, seems to be contradictive to the values Islam promotes, not only in visible things but also, more tragically, in ‘invisible area’ like corruption which is clearly against Islamic values.

International Research Association

2007-08-17T15:56:00.000+07:00

It remains a hard thing; to fully forget her. But I still insist at least not to always remember her all times, as happened along these two semesters. Actually problems risen in those times was not because of her. It is all about me; my mistake. More exactly I am rather an easily-obsessed man.

When I like something or someone I without difficulty become very devotee of that. Except I can forget it, I will always associate almost everything I can with what I like. And sadly or happily what happened to me was related with someone in very long term relationship. It is a relationship not to be done immediately now for many reasons one of which is culture surrounding me. It relates, as in many other Indonesian cultures, with my parents and of course her parents. But for now all I want to do is how to make myself not always think of her and ideally speaking to make my study better. It does not mean that I want to leave her in contrast I want to keep our relationship purified and hence successful. Nothing in this world can you suppose to be separated from God’s power. It means we have to go through this path in accordance with Divine Law. There was, and still is a guarantee from the Prophet that whoever pray to Allah surely He will response his/her prayer.
As long as you walk on and do everything rightly, by referring back to rules within the Two Sources. Without any doubt if you enter the house through the doors available you will get in successfully. But, as usual, problems in reality is not so simple as you find it in literature books, you need your best effort to achieve what you want to. There are so many cultural walls we have to face. However we can overcome them; referring to the Two Sources nothing is able to hamper. We can discuss all rationally, and I am convinced to do it.
Although basically I want to discuss this with my family about whom I must concern, prejudices soon emerge and make me have to hide my problem from them. It is hard to do so, yet I have no other options.
I am sure one cannot be in eternal happiness if one does not refer to It. Certainly I want to tell my parents about her, because I live in a tradition not allowing

Rianti and Headscarf

2007-08-17T15:43:00.002+07:00

It was little bit surprising when I read in Jawa Pos dated August 15 2007 in entertainment page. There was a news about Rianti Cartwright MTv’s VJ and an actress. What made me surprised is, projected to portray a woman with veil, when he said that someday she will wear the jilbab and that this must please her mother. This reveals something in her deep under-conscious she has will to wear and therefore a conviction that it is a good thing to do. It seems to me as something borne in mind that it...

to be continued

What Should I Do?

2007-08-01T10:35:00.000+07:00

In these last two semesters I get more convinced of one thing I hold on, that is, man and woman should not associate freely, at least not in IAIN—where I am studying—or more specific not for me. Of course this must not be confused with freedom of every single person to do what he/she wants.

On the contrary what I propose here is more related with freedom of each to perform his/her best without being pressured by any psychological burden which usually happens among of which is not to make a man’s appearance look bad in front of her and so does to a woman.
Let I try to elaborate this more clearly. Man and woman are created with an inherent instinct to like—or to love—their opposite sex. This is not a problem in itself but the problem may exist in how-to like and certain processes after it. More exactly problems seem to appear if, firstly they associate so freely to the extent that is unlawful and/or secondly they are too young to be full-aware of what they do.
Actually man and woman are free to relate each other as long as they fulfill at least two conditions. Firstly, they must be within law limits as described in Quran and by examples from the Prophet. So many examples from the Prophet obviously show that limitation of man-woman associating should not less freedom of both to perform whatever they want, to the extent that I myself sometime feel surprised.
Secondly, therefore they must be full-aware of every consequence they might face after it. I mean to still be in light of Quran and Hadith. Consider one case in which someone loves other. In such this there may be two possibilities; one loves the right person by whom I mean it is lawful to propose to marry that girl, i.e., not being engaged yet and so; or he loves the wrong person, i.e., having been betrothed by someone else and to whom then become unlawful to get engaged.
In both cases someone have to solve his problem. In the first case one should still strive not to commit unlawful deeds. But it is something very hard to do perfectly, as I experienced mainly in first days of July this year in spite of our commitment. Yet there remain possibilities to keep the rule of divine laws if both have consciousness of them. To say so in ordinary student’s daily life might sound problematical. Experiencing by my self, to me and perhaps for some similar to me it is far more effective if you study without being disturbed by any such problems. And it hardly happens in situation like that. However it must not make things lost their order as they are, that is, revolution, in contrast, it seem more accepted to exchange the opposite ideas toward more comfortable learning environment. All I want to say here is to discuss more deeply regarding this problem within which I am sure we are being involved, or at least we have friends involving. Just to make a more comfortable academical sphere.

Should Western contemporary sciences be Islamized?

2007-04-19T10:35:00.000+07:00

Islamization—mainly in the field of knowledge and sciences—sounds a bit strange, and for some it reflects fundamentality of those who uphold it. To me it deserves to be considered as an implication of Islam itself, for Islam is a religion governing all aspects of human being, including knowledge and science. Furthermore the first verses revealed to Prophet Muhammad—upon whom be peace God’s blessing—are concerning of reading, which is may be understood that the first and most important duty in Islam is to read, means to attain knowledge in the way governed by God’s guide as it is implied in those verses.

To talk about islamization of knowledge is to talk something in middle term. For it is between islamization of language by which it is begun and islamization of mind and thought of which it is end.

It is important to talk about the topic which is—at least in some Muslim scholar point of view—the core of problems being faced by Muslim society. The problem argued to be the core is problem of knowledge, that is, (1) misunderstanding of knowledge and science as projected in Islamic worldview, caused by (2) considering modern sciences as something free-value, which, in fact, it is not; therefore (3) Muslims need to Islamize modern and so-called Western sciences by Islamizing of their linguistic symbols of reality and truth.

The first of these, as explained by Al-Attas, is the most serious problems amongst Muslim brought about by ignorance and confusion. From this standpoint, the economic, social, and, political problems are merely derivative problems which are for some scholars look the most fundamental.

Such ignorance and confusion produced by misadopting happen as result of Muslims’ being unduly influenced by Western civilization.

On Loving Emotionally and Rationally

2007-03-21T20:34:00.000+07:00

Few days back I read small book talking about love. In the book loving is divided into two ways, to love someone emotionally and rationally. The first means you can’t predict and control what you feel. It’s just like in a proverb flow as the wind blows. But there are two signs inherent in this kind of love, passion and egoism. Further the author writes that passion makes someone falling in love is only able to think of his/her couple, but it can be a kind of egoism as well because he/she think of his/her couple only as far as he/she idealize his/her couple and such idealizing makes them satisfied and happy.

That’s why when their couple are not like what they idealize, they feel sad and possibly the love could even change into hatred. Usually this unpleasant condition is caused by something unreal rather than real condition, because both sides aren’t available to talk what they feel and become in their own selfishness. According to what the author writes this love is incomplete love or we may possibly call it as childish love (but it’s what happens most J). To make this love complete we need to the other type of love which is by the author called rational love. Referring to Erich Fromm’s well-celebrated book, The Art of Loving, such love is dominated by reason instead of dominance of passion and it can lead the lover to do full-awareness actions. The rational love needs four factor to fulfil; care, responsibility, respect, and knowledge.

When you love someone you need to give attention to him/her sincerely, in his/her life, personal progress, and happiness.

When you love someone you must have responsibility of yours, of his/her life, you are always available for yours, for his/her difficulties and problems. But this doesn’t necessary mean you dominate him/her, because…..

When you love someone you have to admire yours, not to adore him/her like a king or a queen but to respect him/her (from Latin respicere means to see or to look at). You shouldn’t see yours like what you ask, you have to see him/her as the way they are.

Gestalt Prayer

I am not in this world to live up to your expectations,

And you are not in this world to live up to mine

(Frederick Perls)

In my opinion instead of dominating two people loving each other have to adapt with his/her couple.

And when you love someone you should know yours, his/her personality, his/her background shaping him/her so you can understand him/her well. You are obliged to know that his/her personality is always in progress. Someone who doesn’t understand his/her pair can’t love him/her honestly, which frequently happens in young people relationship. That’s why it had better to feel love in a good, proper, correct way according to Syariah.

March 21, 2007. 4:20 pm
P.S. to me love seems to be more relating with feeling rather than reason, so what is so called rational love is just an organized love, it means, that is, it is love governed by reason not to destroy both sides.